Russia's struggle against foreign invaders in xiii. The struggle of Russia against foreign invasions in the XIII century The struggle against foreign invasions in the 13th century

Wave-like development from the second half of the 11th century, weakened its ability to withstand external aggression from the East and West.

Initially, the Polovtsy, a Turkic-speaking people, who appeared in the southern Russian steppes in the second half of the 11th century, threatened the Russian principalities from the east. They came from the Trans-Volga region and settled from the Volga to the Danube, led a nomadic life, engaged in cattle breeding. The Polovtsians united in a tribal union headed by the khan. The Polovtsian army, which consisted of light and heavy cavalry, which had a permanent militia, was armed with bows, sabers, and spears; Helmets and light armor served as protection. The military tactics of the Polovtsy was reduced to setting up ambushes, using sudden and swift horse attacks on the flanks and rear of the enemy in order to encircle and defeat him.

The devastating raids of the Polovtsy on the South Russian lands, which began in 1055, continued until the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The Polovtsy ravaged the Russian lands, robbed livestock and property, took away a lot of prisoners, who were either kept as slaves or sold in the slave markets of the Crimea and Central Asia. The border regions of Pereyaslav, Seversk, Kyiv, and Ryazan regions suffered the most from them. The intensity of the Polovtsian raids was determined by the strength of the rebuff of the Russian princes. The exhausting struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsy went on with varying success. There are several main periods in this struggle. The first period, from 1055 to the beginning of the 12th century, is characterized by a high intensity of Polovtsian raids and a weak rebuff from Russia, which was part of a period of specific fragmentation. In the second half of the XI century. only Russian chronicles mention 46 Polovtsy attacks on Russia. The most dangerous and regular attacks were at the end of the 11th century. During this period, the typical outcome of clashes with the Polovtsians was the defeat of the Russian princes. So, in 1061, Vsevolod Yaroslavich was defeated by Khan Iskal, and Pereyaslav land was devastated.

In 1068, during the first major invasion of Russia, the Polovtsy in the battle on the river. Alte defeated the army of the Yaroslavichs and devastated the border lands. After that, the military campaigns of the Polovtsy on Russian lands acquired a regular character. In the battle with the Polovtsy on the Nezhatinnaya Niva in 1078, Izyaslav Yaroslavich of Kyiv was killed. In 1092, the Polovtsy launched a second large-scale offensive against Russia. In 1093, they won the battle on the Stugna River over the united troops of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich of Kyiv, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh and Rostislav Vsevolodovich Pereyaslavsky. The repeated battle near Kyiv in the same 1093 also ended in the defeat of the Russians. The second period covers the first half of the 12th century. and is characterized by the victories of the combined forces of the Russian princes over the Polovtsy, offensive campaigns in the Polovtsian steppes, which resulted in a temporary cessation of raids and the pushing of the Polovtsians from the borders of South Russia.

The enormous damage that the Russian principalities suffered from the Polovtsian raids forced the specific princes to organize a military alliance in order to eliminate the Polovtsian threat. The results of collective action were not long in coming. In 1096, the Polovtsy suffered their first crushing defeat from the Russians. This was followed by a number of successful offensive campaigns of the Russian princes (1103, 1106, 1107, 1109, 1111, 1116). In 1117, Vladimir Monomakh made a trip to the Polovtsian winter quarters, after which they migrated to the North Caucasus and Georgia. And in 1139, the son of Monomakh, Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, pushed the Polovtsy beyond the Don, Volga, and Yaik. The main success factor in the fight against the Polovtsy was the temporary consolidation of the Russian principalities under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh. The third period of the struggle against the Polovtsy is associated with the resumption of their raids on the Russian principalities after the death of Mstislav the Great (son of Vladimir Monomakh), as a result of another surge in princely civil strife and the collapse of their military alliance. Simultaneously with the raids, the participation of the Polovtsy in the internecine struggle of the Russian princes resumed.

The attempts of some princes to create a new military alliance and organize a collective rebuff to the Polovtsians were unsuccessful, since they could not gather all their forces. A striking example of unsuccessful separate offensive actions is the campaign of the hero of the Tale of Igor's Campaign, Igor Svyatoslavovich, in 1185, which ended in the defeat and capture of Prince Igor. The fourth period began in the 1190s. It was a time, in general, of peaceful coexistence and partial Christianization of the Polovtsian nobility. In 1222, the Tatar-Mongol invasion approached the Polovtsy themselves, which forced the Polovtsy to seek an alliance with the Russian princes to repel the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars. In 1223, the allied Russian and Polovtsian troops were defeated by the Mongol army in the battle on the Kalka River.

Then the Polovtsy were absorbed by the Tatar-Mongol army and ceased to exist as an independent military-political force. New aggressors, the Mongol-Tatars, were advancing to replace the Polovtsy from the east to Russia. In 1206, at the congress of the leaders of the Mongol tribes, a centralized Mongol state was formed, headed by the great Khan Temuchin (Genghis Khan). Genghis Khan managed to unite the Mongolian tribes and create a strong army for aggressive campaigns to the West and South from the Mongolian steppes. The Mongolian army consisted of well-trained, disciplined and armed cavalry. Mongolian horses were very unpretentious and hardy, they could make transitions up to 80 km per day. The main weapon of the riders was the Mongolian bow - the most powerful weapon for that time, manufactured using a secret technology. The lethal range of the Mongolian bow was up to 800 meters.

At the same time, iron armor penetrated at such a distance. Hence the military tactics of the Mongols - firing from long-range bows, encircling the enemy and swift cavalry attacks from the flanks and from the rear. In the wars of conquest with China, the Mongolian army also mastered special equipment for storming fortified fortresses and cities, battering rams and other assault devices. In addition, the size of the Mongol army was constantly growing. Genghis Khan replenished his army with representatives of the conquered peoples, forming new units from them according to the Mongol model and with Mongol military leaders. The military aggression of the Mongol-Tatars was successful not only due to the military superiority of their army and the military talent of Genghis Khan, but also due to the fact that the countries that became the object of their attack were in a stage of feudal fragmentation and could not offer serious resistance. In 1211, the Mongols conquered their neighbors - the Buryats, Evenks, Uighurs, Yakuts, and the Yenisei Kirghiz. In 1215, the Mongols captured Northern China, and in 1218, Korea was conquered. In 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol troops began the conquest of Central Asia.

The advanced detachments of the Mongols, having captured Iran and the Caucasus, went to the steppes of the North Caucasus, where in 1223 the combined forces of the Russian princes and Polovtsians were defeated in the Battle of Kalka, but then turned back and left. In 1227, Genghis Khan died, and in 1229 Khan Ogedei (Ogedei), the third son of Genghis Khan, became the head of the vast Mongol state. In 1235, at the Khural (national congress of the Mongolian nobility) in the capital of Mongolia, Karokorum, a decision was made to continue the aggressive campaigns to the West. Russia was identified as the next object of aggression, and then Europe. At the head of the 30,000th army were placed the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu, as well as one of the best generals of Genghis Khan, who participated in the first campaign to the West of Subedei (Subedei).

In 1236, the Mongols defeated the Volga Bulgaria, and in the fall of 1237, having previously conquered the Polovtsians and other steppe nomads who bordered on the southern Russian lands, the Mongols invaded the Ryazan principality. The Russian principalities, which found themselves on the path of an aggressive campaign, could neither unite their military forces nor prepare to repel aggression and were defeated one by one. The military forces of each individual Russian principality could not offer worthy resistance to the Mongols. The Mongols, after a six-day siege, stormed and ravaged Ryazan, moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. All the cities of this principality were captured and devastated. Moreover, the usual period of the siege of cities was about a week. The courage and heroism of the few Russian professional soldiers could not compensate for the military superiority of the Mongols. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich, who tried, but did not have time to gather and prepare the combined Russian forces for battle, on March 4, 1238, suffered a crushing defeat in the battle on the City River and was killed. Further, the Mongols moved to Novgorod, but after the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, the main forces of the Mongols, not reaching 100 miles to Novgorod, turned back into the steppes (according to different versions, due to spring thaw or due to high losses). On their way south, the Mongols laid siege to the small town of Kozelsk.

struggle of Russia with foreign invasions in the 13th century briefly and received the best answer

Answer from Astrea[guru]
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Old Russian principalities had to face the onslaught of conquerors from both the East and the West. The Mongol army turned out to be much stronger than all the nomads who had previously attacked Russia, which resulted in the conquest of most of the territory of Russia and the establishment of a two-century Mongol-Tatar yoke. On the contrary, in the battles on the western borders of Russia, Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to stop the onslaught of the crusaders, fixing the historical borders of Russian lands for a long time.
In 1206, the Mongol empire was formed, headed by Temuchin (Genghis Khan). The Mongols defeated Primorye, Northern China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, attacked the Polovtsians. Russian princes came to the aid of the Polovtsy (Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.), but in 1223 they were defeated on Kalka due to inconsistency in actions.
In 1236, the Mongols conquered the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237, led by Batu, invaded Russia. They ruined the Ryazan and Vladimir lands, in 1238 they defeated them on the river. The city of Yuri Vladimirsky, he himself died. In 1239, the second wave of invasion began. Chernigov, Kyiv, Galich fell. Batu went to Europe, from where he returned in 1242.
The reasons for the defeat of Russia were its fragmentation, the numerical superiority of the close-knit and mobile army of the Mongols, its skillful tactics, and the absence of stone fortresses in Russia.
The yoke of the Golden Horde, the state of the invaders in the Volga region, was established.
Russia paid her tribute (tithe), from which only the church was exempted, and supplied soldiers. The collection of tribute was controlled by the Khan's Baskaks, later by the princes themselves. They received from the khan a charter for reigning - a label. The prince of Vladimir was recognized as the eldest among the princes. The Horde intervened in the feuds of the princes and ruined Russia many times. The invasion caused great damage to the military and economic power of Russia, its international prestige and culture. The southern and western lands of Russia (Galich, Smolensk, Polotsk, etc.) later passed to Lithuania and Poland.
In the 1220s. Russians participated in Estonia in the struggle against the German crusaders - the Order of the Sword, in 1237 transformed into the Livonian Order, a vassal of the Teutonic Order. In 1240, the Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva, trying to cut off Novgorod from the Baltic. Prince Alexander defeated them in the Battle of the Neva. In the same year, the Livonian knights launched an offensive, taking Pskov. In 1242, Alexander Nevsky defeated them on Lake Peipus, stopping the raids of the Livonians for 10 years.
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Topic: Russia's struggle against foreign invaders in the 13th century

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University: VZFEI

Year and city: Vladimir 2009

Plan
1. The history of the Mongolian state and its conquests before coming to Russia.
2. The beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the establishment of the yoke (1238 - 1242)
3. The struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongols in 1242 - 1300.
4. The struggle of the Russian people against the Swedish-German aggression

1. The history of the Mongolian state and its conquests before coming to Russia.

Since ancient times, primitive peoples have lived in the steppes of Central Asia, the main occupation of which was nomadic cattle breeding. By the beginning of the XI century. the territory of modern Mongolia and southern Siberia was settled by Kereites, Naimans, Tatars and other tribes who spoke the Mongolian language. The formation of their statehood belongs to this period. The leaders of nomadic tribes were called khans, noble feudal lords - noyons. The social and state system of nomadic peoples had its own specifics: it was based on private ownership not of land, but of cattle and pastures. The nomadic economy requires constant expansion of the territory, so the Mongol nobility sought to conquer foreign lands.

In the second half of the XII century. The Mongol tribes under his rule were united by the leader Temujin. In 1206, the congress of tribal leaders awarded him the title of Genghis Khan. The exact meaning of this title is unknown, it is suggested that it can be translated as "great khan".

The power of the great khan was enormous; the management of individual parts of the state was distributed among his relatives, in strict subordination to whom there was nobility with squads and a mass of dependent people.

Genghis Khan managed to create a very combat-ready army, which had a clear organization and iron discipline. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen"). Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main striking force of the Mongols was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and a good command of a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior from enemy arrows and spears were covered with an iron or copper helmet, leather armor. The Mongolian cavalry had high mobility. On their undersized, with a shaggy mane, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and up to 10 km with wagon trains, wall and flamethrower guns.

The Mongolian state was formed as a conglomerate of tribes and nationalities, devoid of an economic basis. The law of the Mongols was "yasa" - a record of the norms of customary law, put at the service of the state. The capital of the Tatar-Mongols was the city of Karakorum on the Orkhon River, a tributary of the Selenga.

With the beginning of predatory campaigns, in which the feudal lords were looking for funds to replenish their income and possessions, a new period began in the history of the Mongolian people, disastrous not only for the conquered peoples of neighboring countries, but also for the Mongolian people themselves. The strength of the Mongolian state lay in the fact that it arose in the local feudal society at the early stages of its development, when the class of feudal lords still unanimously supported the aggressive aspirations of the great khans. In their attack on Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe, the Mongol invaders encountered already feudally fragmented states, split into many possessions. The internecine hostility of the rulers deprived the peoples of the opportunity to put up an organized rebuff to the invasion of the nomads.

The Mongols began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz (by 1211). Then they invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongols significantly increased their military potential. Flamethrowers, wall-beaters, stone-throwing tools, vehicles were taken into service.

In the summer of 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol troops led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Otrar, Khujand, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench, Samarkand and other cities. After the conquest of the Central Asian states, a group of Mongolian troops under the command of Subedei, bypassing the Caspian Sea, attacked the countries of Transcaucasia. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and causing enormous damage to the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, as they met with strong resistance from the population. Past Derbent, where there was a passage along the coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsy, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea.

The Polovtsy, led by Khan Kotyan, father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav Udaly, turned to the Russian princes for help. They decided to act together with the Polovtsian khans. Vladimir-Suzdal Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not participate in the coalition. The battle took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River. Russian princes acted inconsistently. One of the allies, Prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, did not fight. He took refuge with his army on a hill. Princely feuds led to tragic consequences: the united Russian-Polovtsian army was surrounded and defeated. The captive princes of the Mongol-Tatars were brutally killed. After the battle on the river The winners did not begin to move further to Russia. The next few years, the Mongol-Tatars fought in the Volga Bulgaria. Due to the heroic resistance of the Bulgars, the Mongols were able to conquer this state only in 1236. In 1227 Genghis Khan died. His empire began to disintegrate into separate parts (usuls).

2. The beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the establishment of the yoke (1238 - 1242)

In 1235, the Mongolian Khural (tribal congress) decided to start a big campaign to the West. It was headed by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (Batu). In the autumn of 1237, Batu's troops approached the Russian lands. The first victim of the conquerors was the Ryazan principality. Its inhabitants asked for help from the Princes of Vladimir and Chernigov, but received no support from them. Probably, the reason for their refusal was internecine hostility, or maybe they underestimated the threatening danger. After five days of resistance, Ryazan fell, all the inhabitants, including the princely family, perished. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).

In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal army took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, the Vladimir army was killed, which actually predetermined the fate of northeastern Russia.

Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by the governor Philip Nyanka. After the capture by the Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.

February 4, 1238 Batu laid siege to Vladimir - the capital of North-Eastern Russia. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. While part of the Tatar-Mongolian army surrounded the city with siege engines, preparing an assault, other armies dispersed throughout the principality: they captured Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver, Yuryev, Dmitrov and other cities, 14 in total, not counting villages and graveyards. A special detachment occupied and burned Suzdal, some of the inhabitants were killed by the invaders, and the rest, both women and children, "barefoot and uncovered" in the cold, were driven to their camps. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongols surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire. The capital of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus with its wonderful cultural monuments was plundered on February 7.

After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongols broke up into separate detachments and subjected the cities of northeastern Russia to a rout. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the approach of the invaders to Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the City River, and Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich himself died in the battle.

The Mongol hordes moved to the north-west of Russia. After a two-week siege, the city of Torzhok fell, and the way to Novgorod was opened to the Mongol-Tatars. But, before reaching the city for about 100 km, the conquerors turned back. The reason for this was probably the spring thaw and the fatigue of the Mongol army. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. The greatest resistance to the Mongols was provided by the city of Kozelsk, which defended itself for seven weeks. The Mongols called Kozelsk an "evil city".

The second campaign of the Mongol-Tatars against Russia took place in 1239-1240. This time the goal of the conquerors was the lands of Southern and Western Russia. In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated southern Russia (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - the Chernigov principality. In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv. After a long defense, which was headed by the voivode Dmitr, Kyiv fell. Then in 1241 Galicia-Volyn Rus was ravaged. After that, the conquerors divided into two groups, one of which moved to Poland, and the other to Hungary. They ravaged these countries, but did not advance further, the forces of the conquerors were already running out.

The part of the Mongol Empire that ruled the Russian lands was called the Golden Horde in the historical literature.

3. The struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongols in 1242 - 1300.

Despite the terrible ruin, the Russian people waged a partisan struggle. A legend has been preserved about the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who gathered a squad of 1700 "brave" from the survivors of the battle in Ryazan and inflicted considerable damage on the enemy in Suzdal. The warriors of Kolovrat suddenly appeared where the enemy did not expect them, and terrified the invaders. The struggle of the people for independence undermined the rear of the Mongol invaders.

This struggle also took place in other lands. Leaving the borders of Russia to the west, the Mongol governors decided to provide themselves with food in the western region of Kyiv land. Having entered into an agreement with the boyars of the Bolokhov land, they did not ruin the local cities and villages, but obliged the local population to supply their army with grain. However, the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel, returning to Russia, undertook a campaign against the Bolokhov traitor boyars. The princely army "to betray the city of their fires and rowed (shafts) of their excavation", six Bolokhov cities were destroyed and thereby undermined the supply of the Mongolian troops.

The inhabitants of the Chernihiv land also fought. This struggle involved both ordinary people and, apparently, feudal lords. The papal ambassador Plano Carpini reports that when he was in Russia (on the way to the Horde), Prince Andrei of Chernigov “was accused before Batu of taking the horses of the Tatars out of the land and selling them to another place; and although this was not proven, he was nevertheless killed. Stealing Tatar horses has become a widespread form of struggle against steppe invaders.

The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The incessant struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Russia. Russia retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Russia of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Russia were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, to Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, the brother of the Great Vladimir Prince Yuri Yaroslav II (1238 - 1247), who was killed on the Sit River, was called to the Khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque (paizda) - a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes reached out to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 such campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, in an effort to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census of the population - "recording in number." Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, to whom the collection of tribute was given. The size of the tribute (“exit”) was very large, only the “royal tribute”, i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time requisitions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars.

Census of the population in the 50s - 60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion had a great influence on the historical fate of Russia. In all likelihood, the resistance of Russia saved Europe from the Asian conquerors.

The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the Russian lands lagging behind the developed countries of Western Europe. Huge damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Russia. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils were called the "Wild Field". Many crafts became simpler and sometimes even disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and, ultimately, retarded economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between the various parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The vector of Russian foreign policy, which took place along the "south - north" line (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe), radically changed its focus to the "west - east". The pace of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.

4. The struggle of the Russian people against the Swedish-German aggression.

At a time when Russia had not yet recovered from the barbarian invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, from the west it was threatened by an enemy no less dangerous and cruel than the Asian conquerors. Even at the end of the XI century. The Pope of Rome proclaimed the beginning of the crusades against the Muslims who took possession of Palestine, on the lands of which the main Christian shrines were located. In the first crusade (1096 - 1099), the knights captured significant territories in the Middle East and founded their own states. A few decades later, European warriors began to suffer defeats from the Arabs. One by one, the crusaders lost their possessions. The Fourth Crusade (1202 - 1204) was marked by the defeat not of Muslim Arabs, but of Christian Byzantium.

During the crusades, knightly-monastic orders were created, called upon by fire and sword to convert the vanquished to the Christian faith. They also wanted to conquer the peoples of Eastern Europe. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was formed in the Baltic states (the knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and a cross). Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of the Latvian settlement as a stronghold for subjugating the Baltic lands.

In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, setting up the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of the Estonian settlement. In 1224 the crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu).

To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and the southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during the Crusades, arrived. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later, by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Liv tribe, which was captured by the crusaders.

The knights of the Livonian Order set themselves the goal of subjugating the peoples of the Baltic and Russia and converting them to Catholicism. Prior to this, the Swedish knights launched an offensive against Russian lands. In 1240 the Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the Neva River. The plans of the Swedes included the capture of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod. The Swedes were defeated by the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich. The young prince with a small squad secretly approached the enemy camp. A detachment of militia led by a Novgorodian Misha cut off the enemy's retreat. This victory brought the twenty-year-old prince great fame. For her, Prince Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky.

The Battle of the Neva was an important stage in this struggle. The victory of the Russian army, led by our great ancestor Alexander Nevsky, prevented the loss of the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the complete economic blockade of Russia, did not allow interrupting its trade exchange with other countries, and thereby facilitated the further struggle of the Russian people for independence, for the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

In the same 1240, a new invasion of the North-West of Russia began. Knights of the Livonian Order captured the Russian fortress of Izborsk. When this became known in Pskov, the local militia, which included "all to the soul" combat-ready Pskovians, opposed the knights; however, the Pskovites were defeated by superior enemy forces. In an unequal battle, the princely governor in Pskov also fell.

German troops besieged Pskov for a whole week, but they could not take it by force. If not for the traitorous boyars, the invaders would never have taken the city, which in its history withstood 26 sieges and never opened the gates to the enemy. Even the German chronicler, himself a military man, believed that the Pskov fortress, provided the unity of its defenders, was impregnable. The pro-German group among the Pskov boyars has existed for a long time. It was noted in the annals as early as 1228, when the traitorous boyars entered into an alliance with Riga, but then this group kept a low profile, having among its supporters the posadnik Tverdila Ivankovich. After the defeat of the Pskov troops and the death of the princely voivode, these boyars, who “transfer more firmly with the Germans”, first achieved that Pskov gave the children of the local nobility to the crusaders as a pledge, then some time passed “without peace”, and, finally, the boyar Tverdilo and others "brought" the knights to Pskov (taken in 1241).

Relying on the German garrison, the traitor Tverdylo "he himself often owns Plskov with the Germans ...". His power was only an appearance; in fact, the Germans took over the entire state apparatus. The boyars, who did not agree to treason, fled with their wives and children to Novgorod. Tverdilo and his supporters helped the German invaders. Thus, they betrayed the Russian land, and the Russian people, the working people who inhabited cities and villages, were robbed and ruined, putting on them the yoke of German feudal oppression.

By this time, Alexander, who had quarreled with the Novgorod boyars, left the city. When Novgorod was in danger (the enemy was 30 km from its walls), Alexander Nevsky returned to the city at the request of the veche. And again the prince acted decisively. With a swift blow, he liberated the Russian cities captured by the enemy.

Alexander Nevsky won his most famous victory in 1242. On April 5, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which went down in history as the Ice Battle. At the beginning of the battle, the German knights and their Estonian allies, advancing in a wedge, broke through the advanced Russian regiment. But the soldiers of Alexander Nevsky launched flank attacks and surrounded the enemy. The crusader knights fled: "And they chased them, beating them, seven miles across the ice." According to the Novgorod chronicle, 400 knights were killed in the Battle of the Ice, and 50 were captured. Perhaps these figures are somewhat overestimated. German chronicles wrote about 25 dead and 6 prisoners, apparently underestimating the losses of their knights. However, they were forced to admit the fact of defeat.

The significance of this victory is that: the power of the Livonian Order was weakened; began the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. In 1249, papal ambassadors offered Prince Alexander help in the fight against the Mongol conquerors. Alexander realized that the papal throne was trying to draw him into a difficult struggle with the Mongol-Tatars, thereby making it easier for the German feudal lords to seize Russian lands. The proposal of the papal ambassadors was rejected.

Test 5

Set match:

1. Election by the Zemsky Sobor to the kingdom of Mikhail Romanov.
2. Accession to the kingdom of Alexei Mikhailovich.
3. Cathedral Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

1. The election by the Zemsky Sobor to the kingdom of Mikhail Romanov - A. 1613
2. Accession to the kingdom of Alexei Mikhailovich - B.).

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History of Russia [Textbook] Team of authors

1.4. The struggle of Russia with foreign invaders in the XIII century

Mongol-Tatar conquests in Asia and Transcaucasia

At the beginning of the XIII century. Russia was in mortal danger. Her threat came from the Mongol-Tatar hordes. In the XII century. The Mongols were at the stage of disintegration of the tribal system and the beginning of the folding of the feudal state. The need for new pastures forced the Mongols to seize more and more new territories, entering into bloody wars with neighboring tribes and peoples. In the course of civil strife, one of the noyons (princes) Temuchin, who was elected at the kurultai, a congress of the Mongolian nobility, held in 1206 on the Onon River, won as the leader of the Mongolian tribes. He received the name Genghis Khan - the great khan. Genghis Khan created a huge, several hundred thousand warriors, cavalry army.

The main directions of the conquest campaigns of Genghis Khan at the beginning of the 13th century. were associated with the search for new pastures. Having conquered the tribes of the Kirghiz, Buryats, Uyghurs, the Tangut kingdom, he invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Having defeated China, the Mongols began to use advanced Chinese siege equipment at that time. Capturing thousands of Chinese artisans, weapons and equipment, the Mongols in 1219 attacked the largest state of Central Asia - Khorezm, which could not resist the nomads. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol feudal lords decided to resume the campaign to the west: towards the Transcaucasus, Russia, deep into Europe. In 1231–1243 Mongol hordes invaded Persia, occupied Transcaucasia, subjugated the peoples of the North Caucasus.

The attack of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia

In the spring of 1223, a thirty-thousand-strong Mongol detachment under the command of the noyons Jebe and Subedei invaded the Polovtsian steppes, defeated the Polovtsy, the remnants of which fled across the Dnieper. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan requested help from his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Udaly. The South Russian princes at a congress in Kyiv decided to help the Polovtsy and act as a united force. The squads of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Old, Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov, Daniil Romanovich Volynsky participated in the campaign. Due to feudal strife, Prince Yury Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky, the strongest in Russia at that time, did not go on a campaign.

The decisive battle took place in May 1223 on the Kalka River. Allied forces of Russians and Polovtsy took part in it. The lack of a unified command, inconsistency in actions, strife between the princes, and the skillful tactics of the Mongol military leaders allowed the Mongols to win. It was the heaviest defeat of Russia. Only a tenth of the Russian squads returned to their native lands.

Genghis Khan entrusted the final conquest of Eastern Europe to his eldest son Jochi. After the sudden death of the latter, the Western ulus passed to the son of Jochi Khan Batu. At the kurultai of 1235 in Karakorum, a decision was made to march to the southeast of Europe. The campaign was led by Batu Khan, an experienced commander Subedei became his adviser.

In the winter of 1237, the Mongol-Tatar hordes invaded the Ryazan land, having previously defeated the Volga Bulgaria, subjugating the Mordovians, Bashkirs, Cheremis, finally dispersing the Alans and Polovtsy. Against the 120-140 thousandth army of the Mongol-Tatars, all of Russia could put up no more than 100 thousand soldiers, but the unification of forces was impossible in the conditions of the ongoing princely civil strife. The princely cavalry squads were superior in armament and combat qualities to the Mongol cavalry, but they were relatively few in number. The bulk of the armed forces of Russia were militias. The numerical superiority, maneuverability of the Mongol cavalry forced the Russian princes to switch to defensive tactics. The wooden fortresses of Russian cities were suitable for defense against local feudal rivals, but not for a continuous assault using the siege equipment of the Mongol-Tatar hordes. This explains the fact that in a short time the Mongol-Tatars managed to capture many Russian lands.

The Ryazan principality suffered the first blow. The Ryazan prince turned to the princes of Vladimir and Chernigov for help, but they did not answer. An attempt by the Ryazan prince to resist on his own ended in defeat. Ryazan was besieged, taken by storm and destroyed. Then Batu moved to the Vladimir principality. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich posted an army near Kolomna, which covered a convenient winter route to Vladimir. However, in the "great battle" almost the entire Russian army perished. For five days, the inhabitants of a then small fortress - the city of Moscow - defended themselves. The Mongols, having captured the city, completely destroyed it. In February 1238, Batu laid siege to Vladimir. As a result of a brutal assault, the city was taken, ruined and plundered. Having devastated several more cities of North-Eastern Russia, Batu met with a new army hastily assembled by Yuri Vsevolodovich on the City River on March 4, 1238, where the “slaughter of evil” took place. The Russian regiments were defeated, the Grand Duke died. On March 4, after a two-week siege, Torzhok fell. The Mongol-Tatars opened the way to Novgorod, Polotsk and other cities of Northern and North-Western Russia.

However, Batu, not reaching 100 miles to Novgorod, turned south. Natural factors - the presence of impenetrable forests, swamps and swamps, spring thaw stopped the Mongol-Tatar army. The Mongols suffered heavy losses during the conquest of North-Eastern Russia and feared no less stubborn resistance from the Novgorodians. The lands of Veliky Novgorod were unsuitable for a nomadic economy, therefore nomads were not interested. However, the forces of Russia were undermined, now she could not prevent Batu from fulfilling his ultimate goal - a campaign to the "last sea".

Departing to the south, the Mongol-Tatars again passed through the territory of North-Eastern Russia, destroying the surviving cities. The small town of Kozelsk fought off the onslaught of the nomads for seven weeks, and only with the help of wall-beating machines did the enemy manage to take this "evil city".

In the autumn of 1238, separate detachments of Batu again devastated the Ryazan land, in the spring of 1239 the Pereyaslav principality was defeated, and in early 1240 the Mongols first appeared near Kyiv, besieging the city. The chronicles testify: Batu's army was so great that "you do not hear the voice from the creaking of his carts, the multitude of velludic roars and neighing, from the voice of the herds of his horses, and the Russian land of soldiers was filled." For eight days, the people of Kiev desperately repulsed the attacks of the conquerors. On the ninth day, the Mongol-Tatars managed to break into the city through the gaps in the wall, the battles unfolded on the streets of Kyiv. The last defenders perished at the Church of the Tithes. Defeated and depopulated, Kyiv for a long time lost its significance as a major political center of South Russia. The date of the fall of Kyiv, the formal capital of Russia, became the starting point for the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Having captured Kyiv, the Mongol-Tatars captured Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. In the spring of 1241 they moved west.

Europe of that time could hardly oppose sufficient forces to the Mongol-Tatars and stop the nomads. Europe, like Russia, was torn apart by rivalry between the rulers of large and small states, internal strife. This predetermined the fact that, despite the resistance of the peoples of European countries, Batu's troops devastated Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Croatia and Dalmatia. By the summer of 1242 they reached the coast of the Adriatic Sea. However, at this critical moment for Europe, news came of the death of the great Khagan Ogedei. Batu, using this pretext, immediately turned his army back, trying to be in time for the election of a new great khan.

In the disruption of the Mongol-Tatar campaign against Europe, the decisive role was played by the heroic struggle of the Russian people against the invasion, the resistance of the Russians in the rear of the Mongol troops. The weakened hordes of Batu did not dare to continue further advancement through the territory of Western Europe.

Golden Horde and Russia

As a result of the Mongol conquests in Eastern Europe, a state Golden Horde, stretching from the Dniester to the Tobol in Siberia, from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya to the lands of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians and Mordovians. Russian principalities were also dependent on the Golden Horde. The capital of the state was the city of Sarai-Batu on the Volga. Initially, the religion of the Mongols was paganism in the form of shamanism, and only in 1312 did Islam become the official religion. The state of the Golden Horde reached its greatest prosperity under Khan Uzbek (1312-1340), at the same time the power of the Mongols over Russia increased.

Unlike other territories conquered by the Mongol-Tatars, Russia retained its statehood. The conquerors refused to directly include Russia in the Golden Horde and create their own administration in the Russian lands. The dependence of the Russian lands was expressed primarily in the payment of an annual tribute (“exit”). Russian princes were supposed to receive from the Horde khans labels-letters for the right to reign. Vladimir princes were given a special label for a great reign. The khans intervened in inter-princely strife and summoned the princes to the “great trial”. To control the fidelity and loyalty of the Russian princes, representatives of the khans - Baskaks with military detachments were sent to their lands. They were also engaged in collecting and sending tribute to the Golden Horde.

At the first request, the princes had to appear in the Horde with their army. In 1257, throughout the Mongol Empire, including in the Russian lands, a census was conducted (“recording in number”) to streamline the collection of tribute. The household (house) was recognized as the unit of taxation. The clergy and church people were delivered from the "number". In favor of the khans, deductions from trade duties and a number of other in-kind duties were levied. Initially, the tribute was collected by the Baskaks, later it was given at the mercy of the Muslim Bessermen merchants, and from 1327 the tribute was collected by the Grand Duke.

The Horde tribute and other duties that ruined the population of Russia caused open indignation of the townspeople and peasants, which led to clashes with the Mongol administration and troops. So, in 1257, a “great rebellion” broke out in Novgorod against the “numeralists” who conducted the census, in 1262 there were uprisings in Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl. To suppress the unrest, the Mongols sent punitive detachments, which further aggravated the ruin of the Russian lands. Only in the last quarter of the thirteenth century 14 major punitive actions were committed.

The invasion of Batu and the then established foreign yoke led to the economic decline of the Russian lands. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of artisans were driven into slavery. Because of this, a number of types of handicraft production were lost, such as, for example, the manufacture of glassware and window glass, multi-colored ceramics, cloisonné enamel decorations, etc. Stone construction came to a standstill for many years. The connection between urban handicraft and the market weakened, and the development of commodity production slowed down. Tribute to "silver" led to an almost complete cessation of monetary circulation within the Russian lands.

Trade relations with foreign countries were curtailed. The trade of North-Eastern Russia was hampered by the predatory raids of the Horde on Russian trade caravans.

It took centuries of hard work to ensure the further economic development of the country, the rise of national Russian culture.

The fight against the aggression of the crusaders

While the hordes of Batu were ravaging North-Eastern and Southern Russia, in the west, Russian lands were subjected to aggression by German, Swedish and Danish crusader knights. In 1201, the crusaders, led by Bishop Albert, invaded the land of the Livs, founded the fortress of Riga and the bishopric of Riga. In 1202, the knightly Order of the Sword was founded, which was subordinate to the Bishop of Riga. He became the main tool in the hands of the German feudal lords in the conquest of the Baltic lands. In 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order arrived from Palestine to conquer Lithuania. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming the Livonian Order.

The peoples of the Baltic offered fierce resistance to the offensive from the West. The feat of the Russian-Estonian garrison of Yuryev, who defended the city from the crusaders in 1224 to the last warrior, is widely known. In the battle near Siauliai in 1236, detachments of Lithuanians and Semigallians exterminated the top of the Order of the Sword-bearers, headed by the master.

Neva battle

In July 1240, a detachment of Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva, led by Jarl (Duke) Birger, a relative of the Swedish king. At that time, nineteen-year-old Alexander Yaroslavich reigned in Novgorod. He entrusted the protection of the maritime borders along the shores of the Gulf of Finland to a detachment from the Izhora tribe, who settled along the Izhora River. The elder of the tribe noticed the Swedish ships in time and reported the approach of the enemy to Alexander in Novgorod.

Prince Alexander gathered a cavalry squad, a small foot militia and unexpectedly attacked the Swedish camp. The Russian victory was complete. The decisiveness and courage of the Russian warriors, the art of military leadership of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich stopped the Swedish aggression to the east for a long time, and kept Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. For the victory on the Neva, Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich received the nickname Nevsky.

Battle on the Ice

In 1240, the Livonian knights launched an offensive against the Russian lands. Having invaded the Pskov land, they captured the fortress of Izborsk, and then, as a result of the betrayal of the posadnik and part of the boyars, they captured Pskov.

The Novgorod boyars, fearing the growing influence of Prince Alexander Nevsky in the city, forced him to leave Novgorod and go to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. However, when the first detachments of crusaders appeared near Novgorod, under pressure from the lower classes of the city, the boyars were forced to ask Alexander to return and lead the fight against the Order. In 1241, Alexander Nevsky gathered the Novgorod militia, and soon the Vladimir regiments sent by Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich came to the rescue. Taking the fortress of Koporye by storm, Alexander captured Pskov in the winter of 1242. The betrayers of the boyars, led by the mayor Tverdila, were executed by the verdict of the veche. The captured knights were sent to Novgorod.

On April 5, 1242, one of the bloodiest battles of the Middle Ages took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi - the Battle of the Ice. The military talent of Alexander Nevsky manifested itself in the preparation of the battle with the crusaders, in the choice of the battlefield, in the formation of Russian troops. The knight's armored wedge, having broken through the center of the Russian army, was drawn into the battle formations of Alexander's squad. The cavalry squad of the prince from an ambush struck from the flanks under the base of the wedge. The enemy army was in the ring. After a fierce battle, the knights took to flight. The Russian cavalry pursued them. “And they go after them, like in Asr and don’t comfort them and bish them 7 miles across the ice,” the chronicle reports.

The battle on the ice ended with the complete defeat of the conquerors. About 400 knights died. The victory on the ice of Lake Peipsi put an end to the claims of German feudal lords to Russian lands. The knights were finally thrown back from the Russian borders, thereby preventing the forcible Catholicization of the Russian population.