Why are metaphorical maps effective in counseling? Abstract: Fundamentals of psychological counseling in the positum approach.

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Metaphors in psychological counseling

1.Concept

2.Functions

3.Types and methods of their construction

4. Rules of construction

1. Metaphor in psychological counseling is understood as a way of metaphorical representation (expression) of the client’s problem, experience, and personality for the purpose of their therapeutic elaboration. Metaphor therapy refers to the use of a therapeutic story, which may be composed or co-created by both the counselor and the client, and which has the important quality of providing advice or teaching messages about how to solve a specific problem. A metaphor has the following characteristics:

It is an allegorical version of the presentation of psychological difficulties and ways to resolve them;

Considered as a way of solving a psychological problem through terms belonging to another field;

It is used both as a one-time therapeutic technique and as a stable image that accompanies the entire process of psychotherapy;

Focused primarily on the client’s unconscious;

Associated with the mechanisms of identification and association, when the client identifies himself with the hero of the metaphor, and the situation described in the metaphor has an associative connection with the client’s real problem or difficulty, that is, with his experience;

It can be successfully used both in work with adult clients and in correctional work with children, and in the latter case, the use of special children's psychotherapeutic fairy tales can significantly increase the effectiveness of correctional influence, since children have a much better developed imagination and are very susceptible to this kind of influence ;

Differs in the following specific characteristics:

An already existing story (fairy tale, short story, parable created in culture), which has a number of similar features to the client’s problem;

Created specifically for this client based on the specifics of his problems and life situation.

2. The following functions of metaphors are distinguished:

Reduces the influence of the usual objective definition of the world, its cause-and-effect relationship;

Removes habitual external restrictions that could somehow influence the client’s perception and thinking;

Expands the client’s perception of his difficulties, since, having a number of similarities with the problem presented, he demonstrates to the client the relativity of suffering and reduces the significance of habitual patterns of obligation;

Removes the ban on the client expressing aggressive, negative feelings previously blocked by guilt, anxiety, etc., as it allows this to be done in a metaphorical form;

It has a diagnostic function: often the client himself uses a metaphor, image or some kind of metaphorical comparison to express a disturbing experience, situation, problem, etc., and the consultant in this case needs to clarify and understand the meaning of this image;

Metaphor acts as a means of changing the client’s ideas and beliefs and a way of influencing his behavior.

3. In psychological counseling, metaphors can be used for various purposes. There is the following classification of types of metaphors:

Resource;

Built-in;

Behavior;

Emotional;

Eriksonian trans.

Resource metaphors are images inside or outside the client’s consciousness that help create the resourcefulness of his personality, which contributes to both solving a specific problem or conflict and strengthening the personality as a whole. The formation of a resource metaphor assumes:

The consultant’s knowledge of the client’s individual positive (resource) experience, since the metaphor is formed precisely on the client’s past personal experience;

Appeal to the client’s childhood and resourceful memories from childhood (this could be playing with sand at sea, etc.);

Using the client’s leading modalities to build a metaphor;

If the resource metaphor is focused on expanding the client’s consciousness and increasing the way he perceives the world, then the consultant can use all three modalities and build visual, auditory and kinesthetic images;

Creating an atmosphere of safety that would allow the client to relax and enjoy the images;

Leading the client into a light trance, which involves relaxation, relaxation and calm, using the following techniques:

Use of special speech structures;

Using special relaxation music;

A comfortable chair or couch for the client;

Working with the client's breathing.

Built-in metaphors involve introducing resources within the consulting dialogue and help expand the client’s view of his problem. The essence of built-in metaphors is that the consultant, by introducing some image, story, parable or story, helps the client see other - positive - sides of his problem or understand the true cause of the difficulty and find a solution. The formation of an embedded metaphor involves:

The most accurate correspondence of the metaphor (fairy tale, story, parable, etc.) to the client’s problems, otherwise the goal - expanding the view of the problem - will not be achieved;

Simpler ways of introducing metaphor that do not involve putting the client into a state of light trance;

Constructing a metaphor in an atmosphere of security and trust on the part of the client.

Metaphors of behavior are “recipes” for solving a problem or conflict using the “example of others,” when a consultant, in the form of a fairy tale or parable, talks about how a situation similar to the client’s problem was successfully resolved. Constructing a behavioral metaphor has the following rules:

The story that the consultant tells must fully correspond to the individual characteristics of the client: the personality traits of the hero, the specifics of the problem situation and the phenomena accompanying it, the behavior of the hero, etc. must coincide with the corresponding characteristics of the client;

It is necessary to emphasize the connection between events in history and the client’s reality very subtly, without violating the client’s ideas about himself as a unique phenomenon with unique characteristics and problems. You can use phrases like: “Perhaps your situation is somewhat different from what I told you, but...”;

It is forbidden to give open, direct advice, putting it in the form of “A friend of mine (client) solved this problem like this, and it worked out for him, so you should try,” but it is necessary, first of all, to create positive motivation for the client to solve the problem .

Emotional metaphors are a description of the physiological and emotional state of the hero at the moment of experience and help the client understand his feelings and emotions. There are the following rules when constructing an emotional metaphor: |/ first, the negative states and sensations of the hero that arose during any experience or as a result of any situation are described, that is, what he felt, saw, felt and heard at that moment;

Strengthening the metaphor can be achieved through the description of natural phenomena in accordance with the same principle of transition from negative to positive phenomena.

4. Metaphor, when constructed and used correctly, can become a very powerful means of psychotherapeutic influence, since it is focused on the unconscious layers of the client’s personality. At the same time, inept and incorrect use of this technique can lead to negative counseling results and loss of client confidence in the consultant.

There are the following rules for constructing metaphors:

To find or create the most effective metaphor, a consultant needs to understand the client’s picture of the world, determine how the client sees, hears and feels the world around him, that is, understand the specifics of his modalities, what methods of response he uses, etc.;

When selecting material for constructing a metaphor, the consultant must be confident in the resourcefulness of this material for this particular client, since for different people the same phenomenon can carry opposite emotions. For example, one client may have positive, resourceful memories associated with water, while another may have negative and traumatic ones, since this client could find himself in a situation of experiencing the death of himself or a loved one, which was associated with water (sea, lake, river);

To build a metaphor of any nature (resource, behavioral, emotional, etc.), the consultant can use various fairy tales, parables, stories, short stories, myths, etc., focusing on world culture and literature, as well as using the experience of psychotherapy in this area, in line with which many psychotherapeutic tales and parables have been created.

When constructing a metaphor, the consultant must follow a certain scheme, which includes the following steps:

Client request analysis stage;

The stage of selecting characters who have a problem situation similar to the client’s problem and enter into interactions similar to real ones;

The stage of the culmination of the action, when the conflict component of the real situation is played out and the hopelessness of the latter is emphasized;

The final stage, in which a way out of the problem situation is formed, which should aim the client at solving his real problem. The final stage must meet the following requirements:

The way out of the current problem situation in a metaphor should be similar to the behavior that the client demonstrates in other situations, that is, the principle of not giving advice and believing that the client himself knows the solution must be observed;

The way out of a problematic situation, described in a metaphor, should to a greater extent encourage the client to solve the problem through the formation of an optimistic view of the current situation and a vision of its possible positive outcome, rather than offering a specific solution.

The use of metaphors in counseling has become very

popular. Addressing this somewhat new and unusual topic in teaching

students of the Faculty of Psychology, we have highlighted an important aspect

constructing metaphors in the counseling process.

Metaphor in psychological counseling is understood as a way

metaphorical expression of the problem, experience, personality of the client himself in order to

therapeutic elaboration [Bogdanovich 2008].

Examples of therapeutic metaphors can be found in epic poems, short stories,

poems, fairy tales, fables, parables, songs, films, anecdotes, jokes.

They all have one fundamental quality: they contain important

advice or instructive messages regarding any specific

Problems.

A metaphor has the following characteristics:

− is an allegorical version of the presentation of psychological

difficulties and ways to resolve them;

− is considered as a way to solve a psychological problem through

terms belonging to another field;

- used as a one-time therapeutic technique and as a sustainable image,

accompanying the entire process of psychotherapy;

− focused on the client’s unconscious;

− is associated with identification and association mechanisms when the client

identifies himself with the hero of the metaphor and the situation told in the metaphor has

associative connection with the client’s real problem or difficulty, that is, with his

− can be successfully used both in working with adult clients and in

correctional work with children, and in the latter case the use of special

children's psychotherapeutic tales can significantly increase the effectiveness

corrective influence, since children have a much better developed imagination and they

very susceptible to this kind of influence.

The purpose of therapeutic metaphors is to initiate conscious or

subconscious search that can help a person use personal resources to enrich the model of the world in such a way that he needs to be able to

cope with the problem that worries him. The intention behind

Metaphor counseling assumes that another person's experience of

overcoming problems similar to the client's problem, will give him a way, with the help

whom he can cope with the situation. Fundamental characteristic

therapeutic metaphors is that the participants in the stories and events

occurring in them are equivalent to those persons and events that characterize

client situation or problem. This is represented in a metaphorical list

characters and the problem being presented. When choosing characters for a metaphor, do not

It doesn't matter who they are, it's how they interact that matters. Therefore, the most important

the requirement for a metaphor in terms of its effectiveness is that

so that she meets the client in his model of the world. This does not mean that the content

metaphors must necessarily coincide with the content of the client’s situation. A means

only that the metaphor must preserve the structure of a given problem situation, then

there are significant factors of metaphor are interpersonal relationships and

concepts with which the client operates within the context of the problem. Himself

The metaphorical context itself does not matter.

When constructing effective metaphors, simply including

into the story one participant at a time, corresponding to the participants of the actual problem

and one line of events for each actual event concerning

Problems. Relationships and the course of the current situation must be taken into account in history

so that the client accepts it as a meaningful representation of his problem.

Therefore, what is significant for a metaphor is corresponding

representation of the relationships and processes found in the problem.

There are the following rules for constructing therapeutic metaphors.

For the consultant to find or create the most effective metaphor,

it is necessary to understand the client’s picture of the world, determine how the client sees, hears

and senses the world around him, that is, to understand the specifics of the work of its modalities,

what methods of response does he use, etc.

When selecting material for constructing a metaphor, the consultant should be

I am confident in the resourcefulness of this material for this client, since for different people

one and the same phenomenon can carry opposite emotions [Ivanov 2009].

When constructing a metaphor, the consultant must follow a certain

scheme, which includes the following steps:

1) stage of analysis of the client’s request;

2) the stage of selecting characters who have a problem situation similar to

the client’s problems, and entering into interactions similar to real ones;

3) the stage of the culmination of the action, when the conflict is played out

component of the real situation and the hopelessness of the latter is emphasized;

4) the final stage, in which a way out of the problem is formed

situation, which should aim the client at solving his real problem.

The final stage must meet the following requirements:

a) the way out of the current problem situation in a metaphor should be similar

on the behavior that the client demonstrates in other situations, i.e. must

adhere to the principle of not giving advice and trusting that the client himself knows the solution;

generalized nature so that the client can benefit from his unique experience and

means to solve a problem situation;

c) a way out of a problematic situation, described in a metaphor, to a greater extent

should encourage the client to solve the problem through the formation of an optimistic view of the current situation and a vision of its possible

positive outcome rather than suggesting a specific solution.

To present in detail the process of composing therapeutic metaphors

Let's use the example set out in the book “Therapeutic Metaphors” [Gordon

therapeutic practice. His client Andrey (A.), as well as his girlfriend Svetlana (St.),

is a specialist in a certain field, he is 30 years old. Currently he

forced to work overtime, that is, 12–14 hours a day. Problem A., so

way, is that as a result of the increase in time that he

forced to spend time at the service, he will see less of the Saint. This leads to

tensions between them, which causes both very unpleasant

feelings. Now, when they spend time together, they mostly do things like

bickering. Attempts to discuss the problem that has arisen also end with

that they both have anxious feelings. A. wants to keep his job and his

beloved, wants to lengthen the day, knows that he cannot do this, and does not know

what to do.

In constructing a metaphor for this problem, you can choose the context

"Knights of the Round Table".

Current situation Metaphor

Andrey Lancelot

Svetlana Guinevra

A. and St. love each other, Lancelot and Guinevere love each other.

But they both work. Lancelot is a knight

Guinevere is the queen.

A. appoint King Arthur sends Lancelot to

extra work. assistance to troops fighting in France.

He begins to see St. Lancelot less often and sees Guinevere less often

In their relationship, when he sees Guinevere, they

tension. curse and feel uncomfortable.

They try to discuss it, Lancelot continues to hope

but all attempts fail to correct the situation, but always c

quarrel and alienation. returns with disappointment

to your troops.

No resolution, problem No resolution, problem

is played again. replays until resolved.

Drafting permission for a metaphor usually depends on those being persecuted in

therapy goals. By observing the client, the consultant intuitively knows what changes

would be useful to him, and can determine which outcome should be chosen. But

in many cases the client himself determines the solution to the problem, usually knowing what

changes he would like to make. However, most often clients find themselves in

confusion when building a bridge between the present, unsatisfactory and

a repeating real situation, on the one hand, and a desired situation, on the other hand

the other side.

So, metaphor as its two main components has the desired

outcome and strategy that would bridge the gap between the problem and the desired outcome. Because it is not enough to simply jump from “problem” to

"new behavior" since this is what the client has been trying to do unsuccessfully before

how to contact a consultant.

Returning to the situation of Andrei and Svetlana, when asked how exactly Andrei

would like to change his situation regarding Svetlana, he explained that he would like

“to feel closeness and comfort with her again.”

Thus, we see the following situation:

Problem Desired outcome

argue about work and feel

the fact that closeness and comfort with Svetlana are rarely seen

As possible resolutions that could potentially help Andrey

to get what you want in this situation, you can suggest the following: Andrey could

learn to manage your feelings so as not to feel

discomfort; present Svetlana with an ultimatum so that she changes her behavior;

learn not to hear or see Svetlana when she is irritated and hurts him

However, none of these choices are, in and of themselves, better than the others. Best choice

will be determined by Andrey independently, like any other client. wonderful

a way to obtain information about a possible solution to a problem by a client is

please describe how he tried to solve this problem before coming to the therapist.

By describing in detail his mistakes when solving a problem, the client will indirectly

describe what needs to be done in order for the goal to be achieved (that is, he will

describe at what moments he finds himself confused, and thus, in

in which directions is his model limited). Another great way to get this

information is the question: “What is stopping you from...” (from telling her about

your feelings) or: “How do you keep yourself from...” (feeling

calmly). Therefore, the strategy that the client draws up for himself is

is that he overcomes or bypasses his fear long enough to

do what he wants to do.

In response to a request to describe the usual development of his arguments in a dispute with

Svetlana Andrey described a typical scene where he is trying to explain to her that this

the new job is very important for him, and Svetlana begins to make sarcastic

remarks regarding the “business man.” After an argument they usually

they stop talking at the same time and then have a bad evening. These and

Andrey's other comments may indicate to the consultant that it is possible Svetlana

alarmed by the suspicion that his search for additional work is connected with

a decrease in his infatuation with her. As a necessary behavioral bridge,

capable of solving the problem, in this case the following may appear:

Another important component in problem solving is the process.

reframing, that is, combining previous painful or unwanted experiences so that they turn out to be valuable and potentially useful. Similar extension

elections are carried out through clear and unambiguous communication to the client

within the context of the metaphor, how his previous unpleasant experiences and

behavior can be useful for life.

Summarizing the above facts, the entire process of formulating therapeutic

metaphors can be represented as follows:

1) collection of information;

2) creating a metaphor;

3) the message of the metaphor.

To make sure that working with metaphor is effective, you can

having examined its completeness and completeness, which means the creation of all necessary

changes in relation to various problem levels within the limits given

in metaphor.

A metaphor, when constructed and used correctly, can become very

a powerful means of psychotherapeutic influence, since it is focused on

unconscious layers of the client's personality. At the same time inept and wrong

using this technique may lead to negative results

counseling and loss of client confidence in the consultant.

Metaphor is a figurative way of describing a situation, a figurative comparison that helps to see new meanings through the picture. Metaphor helps to emotionally color speech or text.
Examples of simple metaphors:
Reliable, like a Swiss bank (About the reliability of the functioning of something).
Light as a feather. (About the miniature laptop)
Rapid fire, like a machine gun. (About the high speed printer)
Metaphor is needed not only in order, thanks to the received name, to make our thought accessible to other people; We ourselves need it in order for the object to become accessible to our thought. Not all objects are easily accessible to our thinking; we cannot form a separate, clear idea of ​​everything. And metaphor serves as a tool of thought, with the help of which we manage to achieve and understand the meaning of a particular phenomenon. However, it does NOT push the boundaries of the conceivable, it only provides access to what is dimly visible on its distant boundaries.
Metaphors are used in pedagogy, psychology, psychotherapy, and public relations. Being competently composed, they gently (not “overhead”) awaken the thoughts, feelings and moods specified by the author. The use of metaphors helps, for example, the speaker to better interact with the audience; the seller to effectively present the product; It is more effective for a psychotherapist to work with a client.
Metaphors can be used, among other things, to work on yourself. For example, come up with a metaphor for the desired lifestyle. It is useful to reflect on your life by finding a metaphor for the day, a metaphor for the week, a metaphor for the month or year. It is good to add a slogan, a thesis, or a formulation to a metaphor that verbally summarizes what is figuratively expressed in the metaphor.
We train:
For example, 3 times a day I look for a metaphor for a famous person on TV based on the following points:
1. Natural phenomenon
2. Musical style and instrument
3. Painting or sculpture
4. What century, era, culture
5. Mode of transport
6. Tree or flower
7. Animal or bird...
Metaphor
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Metaphor (from ancient Greek - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other on the basis of their common attribute. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.
1. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.
2. A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:
1. Category or context,
2. An object within a specific category,
3. The process by which this object performs a function,
4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
In lexicology, a semantic connection between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarities (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word. In Shakespeare, for example, what is often important is not the original everyday meaning of a statement, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning - a new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, who was brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, the Nose of Major Kovalev in a general's uniform in Gogol is not only personification, hyperbole or comparison, but also a new meaning that did not exist before. Futurists did not strive for the verisimilitude of the metaphor, but for its maximum distance from the original meaning. For example, “a cloud in my pants.” During the years of the dominance of socialist realism, metaphor was actually expelled from literature as a device that led away from reality. In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner “metaphor in a square” or “metametaphor” (a term by Konstantin Kedrov). A distinctive feature of metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture as a whole. This is due to the formation of metaphor under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of metaphor in defining the objects of technological achievements of mankind.
Metaphors explain one concept in terms of another, but the “metaphorical ordering of reality” is not comprehensive in these cases, but only partial.” A metaphor, while helping to comprehend a concept, obscures some of its aspects: perceiving an opponent as an adversary, one can forget about cooperation in a dispute. In an orientational metaphor, an entire system of concepts is organized in terms of another system, for example, “possession of power or force orients upward; subordination of force - downward.”

Kinds
In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (a sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (a familiar, erased metaphor)
An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: “The book famine does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away,
Theories
Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of a variety of features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.
According to the classification proposed by N.D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into
1. nominative, consisting of replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
2. figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
3. cognitive metaphors that arise as a result of a shift in the compatibility of predicate words (transfer of meaning) and create polysemy;
4. generalizing metaphors (as the final result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of a word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.
Let's take a closer look at metaphors that help create images, or figurative ones.
In a broad sense, the term “image” means a reflection of the external world in the consciousness. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author’s thinking, his unique vision and a vivid image of the picture of the world. Creating a bright image is based on the use of similarities between two objects that are distant from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. For a comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be quite different from each other, and sometimes the similarity can be quite insignificant, unnoticeable, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.
The boundaries and structure of the image can be almost anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, phrase, sentence, super-phrase unity, can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.
However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson identify two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a certain substance (the mind is an entity , the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other (happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).
George Lakoff in his work “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” talks about the ways of creating metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression. A metaphor, according to Lakoff, is a prose or poetic expression where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to the given one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, metaphor lies outside of language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work “The Conduit Metaphor”, in which Reddy notes that metaphor lies in language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that “the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the listener, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words.” This idea is also reflected in the study by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson “Metaphors We Live By.” Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to just the sphere of language, that is, the sphere of words: the processes of human thinking themselves are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because metaphors exist in the human conceptual system.”
Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality artistically. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is the metaphor, which creates a concrete image of an abstract concept, that makes it possible for different interpretations of real messages.”
As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual essence: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first to contrast poetic metaphor with linguistic metaphor was Sh. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language.

Methodology “working with metaphor”

This is a technique, elements of which are actively used in Ericksonian hypnosis, fairy tale therapy, and in ordinary conversation we often use metaphors.

“Working with metaphor” in consultation with a psychologist

Here we are talking about a more detailed metaphor that helps the client imagine the virtual world. It draws the client into a trance state and helps him overcome the situation of hopelessness in which he finds himself.

To illustrate, here is an example: a client with a rather difficult experience of a love breakup understands that everything is already over, but his heart cannot accept it.

At a certain point, the consultant gives the following metaphor: “I thought about your problem and imagine you on the threshold of a certain boundary that stands between your past and new life and your current task is to cross this boundary. By taking this step, you can look back and look at your past relationships, look at them in a new way, breathe fresh air.”

The client must take this step in the virtual world and, although after the end of the consultation he will return back beyond this border, now he will already have experience that will tell him what to do. If the metaphor worked, the client will often say that he felt relieved.

The task of a psychologist-consultant is to begin psychotherapy, and then orient the client towards long-term interaction in face-to-face counseling. But at the stage of a Skype conversation, something serious should already begin.

Work with subpersonalities should begin at this stage, although of course it is impossible to conduct a full course in 30-50 minutes.

Often, a school psychologist has to carry out individual correctional work with children. Almost always he is faced with the problem of choosing methods. Young psychologists who do not see the difference between psychocorrection and psychotherapy find themselves in a particularly difficult situation. Moreover, they most often strive for the latter, since at the institute they mastered foreign psychotherapeutic approaches, such as psychodrama, Gestalt therapy, psychoanalysis, etc.

Trying to try to apply them at school, they are faced with the fact that the methods do not work. However, it is not only purely psychotherapeutic techniques that “do not work” in Russian schools. Some techniques described by foreign authors, which can be used for short-term psychocorrection purposes, are rejected by Russian children. The reasons for this are clear.

Well-known schools of practical psychology were created in other cultures that differed from ours in many respects. In particular, Russian culture is considered more collectivist than Western culture; successful interpersonal relationships are very important to us, and for a child, his status in the class is important. He may refuse to work with a psychologist if he thinks that by doing so he will become different from everyone else. This happens especially often with teenagers, if most of the children in the class do not have experience of individual work with a psychologist. If in the class an invitation to a psychologist is perceived as “that means there is something wrong with him,” then the teenager, fearing judgment from his peers, most likely will not go to a specialist.

A feature of Russian culture, in addition to collectivism, is a fairly high level of desire to avoid uncertainty, so the new, unknown is almost always frightening. Unusual actions for a child, which he has not performed in ordinary life, “stress” him. With a high degree of probability he will refuse to fulfill them.

We can conclude that a fairly high level of collectivism, the desire to avoid uncertainty and other features of our culture do not give psychologists the opportunity to mechanically transfer methods developed by Western specialists into our work. Perhaps the only exception is art therapeutic methods, the use of which is almost universal. This is also understandable, because they are based on a person’s natural desire to draw and create.

But there are children who refuse art therapy. In addition, her capabilities for individual work as a school psychologist are not always sufficient. Then what methods can be used in the work of a school psychologist in Russia and what type of psychocorrection can they be classified as?

To answer this question, we decided to give examples from our practice.

SITUATION 1. “Nerd bully”

The teenager is 14 years old, has a high intellectual level of development, studies very well at school, but in the 9th grade he began to experience acute communication difficulties. The parents and the teenager himself were concerned about the situation, which allowed the psychologist to receive a request for individual work from the child himself and the parents.

In this case, the work used the metaphor “nerd-bully” - as an image familiar to the child from his life experience and interests.

It is common among teenagers to give nicknames or labels to children who are worried about their studies and want to do well; most often they are called “nerds.”

Since the teenager in our first case studies very well, his social status in the class is low, and the teenager suffers from the fact that everyone calls him a “nerd” and girls do not show interest in him. Although this child’s need to be successful among his peers is very high.

A metaphor was invented to work with this boy. The essence of the work was that the teenager, together with the psychologist, described the behavior of a “nerd” and a “hooligan.” This is how the teenager described these images.

“Nerd” - studies well, does not cheat, lives by the rules, does not like to break them, does not communicate with peers or communicate with “nerds”, does not interact with girls at all, dreams of doing everything perfectly, but is always in discomfort, has has a lot of fears, loves to study, is either an outcast or his peers don’t notice him.

“Hooligan” - does not study well and does not worry much about his grades, cheats very often, breaks all possible rules and does not feel remorse, is a favorite of girls, swears, is in a “humpty-dumpty” state, a leader among his peers, experiences mostly a feeling of joy and comfort.

After such a description of the two models of behavior, the psychologist drew a line, designated a “nerd” on one end, and a “bully” on the other end, and invited the teenager to honestly note where he himself was. The teenager noted that he is closer to a “nerd,” but he wants to be both “not a nerd” and “not a bully,” but somewhere in the middle. The psychologist asked me to come up with a name for a teenager who is the golden mean for a nerd and a bully. He was given a name - “cool”.

The next stage of the work was the description of the image of a “cool” teenager - his behavior and attitude towards studying: he studies well, but at the same time he can cheat, he studies not because he likes it, but because it is necessary for his future life, in relationships - respect and cooperation, in the team he is accepted and his opinion is taken into account, outside of school there are good, harmonious relationships. The result of this work was the conclusion of an oral agreement with the teenager that it was necessary to learn to behave like “cool”.

Then the psychologist and the teenager identified the main techniques of the “bully”, which ensure his popularity with girls and peers: flirting, “humorous,” telling jokes, using fashion accessories in his clothes. The psychologist asked what the teenager could use in his behavior and suggested practicing. The teenager chose humor and jokes. The next few sessions were devoted to practicing telling jokes.

The psychologist gave homework: find and bring to the next lesson the jokes that are most popular among peers and will be laughed at. The psychologist himself must also select jokes in advance that can be offered to the teenager for training. It is important to note that when selecting jokes, it is necessary to take into account the age of the audience who will listen to the jokes (14–15 years old); the topics should not be vulgar and vulgar. Later in the lesson, the psychologist and the teenager agree to take turns telling jokes in a very artistic and interesting way. Depending on the teenager’s success, you can regulate the number of lessons with jokes and be sure to give homework - use jokes when communicating with peers.

After mastering this behavior, the psychologist offers the teenager situations from life and asks him to answer what a “nerd”, “hooligan” and “cool” would do.

You want to invite a girl to your birthday (for a walk or to the cinema). What will you do?

How to start a conversation during recess with a girl or a very “cool” classmate?

In the presence of the girls, another boy said something vulgar, everyone laughed, but you can see that the girl is very offended. What will you do?

The psychologist can come up with situations based on the needs, interests and current life experiences of the teenager.

It is possible to discuss such situations over the course of several sessions, but at the same time complicating the task for the teenager and giving little time for reflection. You can also ask to come up with several possible answers.

An important component of working with a teenager in this situation is close contact with parents. The psychologist informs the parents (only with the consent of the teenager: the psychologist and the teenager agree on what the psychologist will tell the parents and what will remain confidential information) about the results of the work. Prepares them for possible changes in the child’s behavior and gives recommendations on how to consolidate these changes.

The last stage of work, which can also be used as a test for the formation of a new way of behavior, is to consolidate experience through expanding the boundaries of communication: camp, hike, communication with peers outside the school walls (courses, trainings, etc.). You can also offer a teenager tasks that he needs to complete: approach any girl from school and give her a compliment, call a classmate in the evening and ask what she is doing, chat with her. You can invite your teenager to invite his classmates to the cinema on the weekend.

It is also important to constantly reflect with the teenager: does he notice changes, what are his classmates saying about him, how does he feel, is the attitude towards him changing, does he like the changes that are happening to him, etc.

How does metaphor work?

In this situation, the metaphor is filled with the content of the teenager’s inner world. The psychologist used a metaphor to structure the teenager's inner world. The “nerd-bully” metaphor made it possible to encourage a teenager to reflect on his own behavior, show activity and develop inner self-confidence.

SITUATION 2. “Computer hacker”

At a parent meeting in the 9th grade, the mother shared with the psychologist her worries about her son: the ninth grader is not interested in anything, does not make contact with his parents, communicates little, does not tell what is happening in his life, and most importantly, does not know who he wants to be. to be and what to do in the future, although he studies very well. The mother asked the psychologist to meet with her son and talk about the future.

In a conversation with the teenager, the psychologist shared the parents’ experiences and asked what he himself thought about it, to which he replied that in the future he was going to study computer technology and, perhaps, go into science. When asked what the teenager is interested in now, he replied that he is much more interested in knowing how you can learn without studying, how to learn to cheat and how you can break the rules at school. Since the teenager had no motivation to come next time, the psychologist suggested discussing these issues next time.

For the next lesson, the psychologist used the metaphor of a “computer hacker” as a way to attract a teenager to the inner world, which encourages him to become aware of his own feelings.

Since the teenager was only interested in computers and everything connected with them, the psychologist suggested describing what a “computer specialist and hacker” does in life.

This is how a teenager described their style of behavior: a “computer guy” lives by the rules, does everything according to instructions, he lives a boring life, but he knows a lot and works a lot. A “hacker” loves to misbehave, have fun, disturb others, he loves to create and gets pleasure from it. Then the psychologist suggested that the teenager try on the role of a “hacker” and live in this image at school, come up with various jokes, viruses, and jokes. Several classes were devoted to inventing interesting and original jokes. When the teenager’s imagination began to dry up, the psychologist asked what this job gave him. The teenager replied that he felt a sense of satisfaction when he was a “hacker”; he also understood how he felt about studying, that it was a burden to him, but he understood that he needed to study.

How does metaphor work? In this case, the metaphor helped fill the teenager’s inner world with other content, helped to realize, actualize and give vent to feelings and experiences.

Of course, the work in this case is not finished yet, it was more likely a diagnosis rather than psychotherapy, but the main thing is that the teenager is interested in changes and he has a desire to study his inner world further.

SITUATION 3. “Mountain Traveler”

A very worried mother of a 7th grade student came to see a psychologist with the following problem: her son is doing very poorly at school - he “doesn’t get out of grades”, goes to school without desire, and doesn’t want to correct his grades. Mom believes in her son and believes that he can study better, but does not understand why he can’t do anything. The mother asked the psychologist to help the teenager.

The psychologist diagnosed the student's cognitive abilities and found no reasons for poor performance. At the first meeting, the psychologist was able to understand that the child was very unsure of himself and did not know how to cope with difficulties on his own, gave in to tests, and did not believe in himself. But at the same time, the psychologist noted that the boy was very worried about failures in his studies, which aggravated the situation.

At the second meeting with the teenager, the psychologist used the metaphor “mountain-traveler” as a way of transferring emphasis from the severity of the experience in reality to the methods of action that are carried out in the metaphor (movements in the real world symbolize movements in the inner world).

The psychologist asked the teenager to imagine a traveler going to the mountains alone. She asked me to list what difficulties a traveler would encounter in the mountains and write them down on a piece of paper in a column. At the next lesson, the psychologist suggested that the student help the traveler and pack a backpack with qualities that would definitely help him in the mountains. The teenager drew a backpack and wrote down many positive qualities. At the next lesson, the psychologist asked him to describe with what difficulties in the mountains the boy associated difficulties at school. It was necessary to continue the list of the traveler's challenges - opposite the traveler's difficulties, write the schoolchild's difficulties. All subsequent sessions, the psychologist and the teenager analyzed the situations, looked for ways to solve the problem in the mountains and transferred them to the educational problem, used a backpack of qualities, that is, they took out from there the quality that could be useful for overcoming this difficulty.

How does metaphor work? In this situation, the metaphor “mountain traveler” allowed the teenager to imagine himself as a traveler experiencing difficulties and describe his own difficulties using metaphorical names.

SITUATION 4. “The mask that people wear”

Among ninth grade students, this girl stands out for her appearance (black hair, black clothes, black makeup, accessories in the form of skulls, skeletons and spikes) and her behavior: aggressive, rude, harsh. She doesn't interact much in class because her classmates are afraid of her. She behaves very defiantly with teachers: she is insolent, rude and reacts aggressively to any demands or comments from teachers. From the psychologist’s conversation with the mother, it became clear that it was also difficult for her to interact with her daughter. It was decided to invite the girl to meet with a psychologist to discuss the consequences of her chosen behavior tactics. Since the young lady reacted to everyone as if they were “interfering with her life,” the psychologist decided in class to use the metaphor of “masks that people put on themselves” as a way to expand the boundaries of behavior and acquire new social roles.

At the first meeting, the psychologist praised the girl for her excellent demonstration of one of life’s roles, but added that there are many more roles in life and those who know how to use all the roles can achieve much more. The girl agreed with the psychologist. Then the psychologist suggested discussing why this is so. We came to the conclusion that a person who always acts the same way is boring, uninteresting, and cannot understand other people.

The psychologist suggested listing what other masks exist, and the girl named the following:

Seeker of truth.

I didn't care.

I'm not like others.

Everyone got me.

Explosive mixture.

Heat emitter.

I do not need anybody.

Pink romantic.

After listing all the masks, the psychologist asked to write down their names in a column, select and paste a picture next to each name. The girl performed this task with great interest. During all subsequent sessions with the psychologist, the girl chose one mask that was most interesting to her at the moment, and discussed it with the psychologist according to the following plan:

1. If you met a person wearing this mask, how would he be dressed?

2. Where can he live?

3. Who are his friends?

4. How would he study?

5. What is his favorite pose?

6. What feelings does he most often experience?

7. What words does he use most often in his speech?

8. If they “ran into” him, how would he behave?

9. If he was praised, what would he do?

10. If he was offended, what would he do?

11. Who might he fall in love with or who might fall in love with him?

While working with this girl, the psychologist asked: if you put this mask on yourself, what would it give you, what would you want to take from this mask? You can ask when this mask will help, and when it can harm or interfere.

How does metaphor work? In this case, the metaphor “the mask that people put on” helped the girl discover new qualities in herself, choose new ways of acting in different situations, and respond to feelings. When discussing different ways of behavior of people in different situations, the psychologist, together with the teenager, was able to consider a wide range of life situations and ways to solve specific problems. It is important to note that the teenager has already changed significantly in the process of work. The girl began to trust people more. Classmates noted that she “became kind,” “let me cheat,” and began helping those whom she previously “couldn’t stand.” The girl herself, upon completion of the work, noted that she became interested in communicating with people and that it seemed to her that she would soon fall in love.

SITUATION 5. “Coconut: outside and inside”

The psychologist received a request from the mother of a girl who is in ninth grade and has difficulty communicating with peers. According to her mother, her daughter has no friends, she cries at the slightest difficulty, doesn’t know how to behave in a new situation, gets very worried when her classmates ask her for help, and worries that no one notices her.

At the first meeting, the psychologist found out that the girl herself was only worried about the fact that no one noticed her. And then the psychologist proposed the metaphor of a coconut, which is inconspicuous on the outside, but has tasty milk and very tender pulp. And to know the taste of coconut, you need to try it. The psychologist suggested that the girl devote several meetings to studying her inner resources and revealing them to her classmates.

To study the inner world, the psychologist suggested using art tools: a collage, a map of my resources, the treasures of my soul, etc. To demonstrate her inner world to her classmates, the psychologist advised the schoolgirl to publish her own poems in the school newspaper. She agreed, and the whole school enjoyed reading the girl’s poems.

The second way of self-presentation was the organization of a master class on graffiti. The girl was good at drawing in graffiti style, and the school principal allowed her to paint one of the vans that stood on the school grounds. Classmates and everyone who wanted to learn how to draw in graffiti style were invited to demonstrate the master class. After the master class, many approached the ninth-grader and expressed their admiration for her talent. The girl was very pleased, and from that moment she gained confidence in her abilities and a desire to expand her capabilities.

Of course, this should no longer be psychological work, but the work of the entire teaching staff of the school. But the beginning of the girl’s personal development was made with the help of the coconut metaphor.

How does metaphor work? In this case, the metaphor helped encourage self-exploration and a desire to express herself in a teenager who has strong inhibitions about expressing feelings, and increased her confidence in her own capabilities and self-worth.

Let's try to draw a general conclusion. In our opinion, metaphor allows us to work with a wide range of teenage problems and allows us to quickly convey to a teenager the meaning of the difficulties that he experiences. It allows the teenager to find ways out of the current situation on his own. In our opinion, this may be due to the fact that at the age of 13–15, imaginative thinking has already been formed and adolescents are good at associating, analyzing, comparing and predicting.

But the most important advantage of the metaphor method is its safety. It can be difficult for a teenager to directly express his problems, and the psychologist who observes him at school, together with his parents, can quite clearly formulate what difficulties he has encountered. It is also important to note that a metaphor allows you to inspire a teenager and jointly find ways to solve problems.

The forms of metaphor can be varied:

Verbal, written on paper;

Drawn by a child;

Prepared in advance by a psychologist (thematic pictures, avatars, masks).

Our experience at school allows us to hope that we are at the origins of a new direction in individual correctional work, which can be called meta-influence. It is based on the peculiarities of Russian culture and, in our opinion, will become widespread in the future.

Metaphors (in the form of fairy tales, poems, anecdotes) are used consciously and subconsciously by psychologists to help clients make desired changes. Such stories, anecdotes and idioms have one fundamental quality: they contain important advice or instructive messages regarding some specific issue. Someone faces a problem and somehow either overcomes it or fails. The way the hero solves his problem may be suitable for other people in a similar situation. When any of these stories is presented to a listener with the intention of advising or instructing him (or if the listener implies such an intention), then it becomes a metaphor for that person. In a general sense, a metaphor can be defined as a message in which one domain of things is expressed in terms of terms belonging to another domain of things, and together throws new light on the nature of what was previously described.

Metaphors are used overtly or covertly in all psychological approaches and systems. An example is Freud's use of sexual symbolism as a tool for understanding dreams, fantasies, and "unconscious" associations. Jung invented the metaphors of animus and anima. Reich invented the orgone. Humanistic psychology talks about “peak experiences,” while mechanists talk about the “little black box.” Berne had “games,” Perls had “top” and “bottom” dogs, and Yanov spoke of “primary” experience. Further, every therapy or system of psychology has as its foundations a certain set of metaphors (in the form of a dictionary), which provides some part of people with the opportunity to express some part of their experience about the world. However, the important clarification we must make here is the fact that such metaphors are not the experience itself. People do not carry around in their heads either little “top” dogs or “primary entities” prowling around looking for “It” to fight in a duel. Metaphors are simply a way of communicating experience.

The above and other metaphors help you understand that your client's story about his situation is also a set of metaphors that you can “feel into” to the best of your ability. However, the “feelings” and “sensations” you derive from these metaphors will never be identical to your client's actual experience, just as your responses to the client will be misunderstood to a certain extent. It often happens that such a system of communication through metaphors leads to increasing errors in mutual understanding and perception.

Each person develops his own unique model of the world, based on a combination of genetically determined factors and his personal experience. A "model" includes all experiences and all generalizations about those experiences, as well as all the rules by which those generalizations are applied. Some parts of this model undergo certain changes with physiological development and in accordance with new experiences, while other parts of this model appear rigid and unchanging. There are no two identical models of the world. We all develop our own and unique models of the world. This clarification is very important to keep in mind, since the collection of accurate information is a fundamental aspect for any effective psychological situation. Realizing that all communications are metaphorical and based on unique experiences, we can remember that for this reason they are not complete and that it is the listener who forms the idea of ​​​​what he heard and, in general, of all the information presented to him.

The counselor should never assume that the client fully understands him. He must make sure that the client gets what the consultant told him. Different people can understand the same words and expressions in completely different ways. The meaning of such concepts as “hostility”, “dependence”, “self-deprecation”, etc., should be revealed by relating them to specific cases in the client’s life, and this is very important in the process of psychotherapy. The general principle of the approach to conducting a consultative dialogue is to create conditions in which the client could independently determine the meaning that certain events have for him, and this is much more productive than when a psychologist tries to explain or instill it in the client using statements or questions , suggesting a very specific type of answer. One of the most useful questions in a counselor's repertoire is, “What do you mean now?” It should be set in a tone that conveys that the consultant only wants to understand the client and does not doubt his ability to find the answer on his own.

Of course, there are more than just differences between models of the world. There are also many similarities, partly due to the conditions of upbringing in a specific social environment. The development and use of psychological metaphors should make maximum use of those similarities that describe the patterns in which people express their life experiences.

Fairy tales are psychological because the client finds his own solution, associating what in them seems to relate to him with the conflicts of his inner life, with what he is currently experiencing. The content of a fairy tale is usually not related to the client’s current life, but it may well reflect what constitutes his internal problems, which seem incomprehensible to him and therefore insoluble.

Thus, the purpose of psychological metaphors is to initiate a conscious or subconscious search that can help a person use personal resources to enrich the model of the world that he needs in order to be able to cope with the problem that occupies him.

The most important requirement for a metaphor to be effective is that it meets the client in his model of the world. This does not mean that the content of the metaphor must necessarily coincide with the content of the client's situation. “Meeting the client in his own model of the world” simply means that the metaphor must preserve the structure of the given problem situation. In other words, the significant factors in the metaphor are the interpersonal relationships and patterns with which the client operates within the context of the problem. The context itself does not matter.

Psychological metaphors, like therapy in general, begin with a problem. The first and foremost task of someone who helps people is to achieve a certain level of understanding of the nature and characteristics of the client's problem, as well as an awareness of the direction in which he wants to change his situation. An important prerequisite for effective therapy and for the work of psychological metaphors is the need for an accurate formulation of the client's goals. This means that the client will have control over the changes that need to be made.

The fundamental characteristic of a psychological metaphor is that the participants in the story and the events that occur in it are equivalent - isomorphic - to those persons and events that characterize the client's situation or problem. This is represented both in the metaphorical list of actors and in the processes and parameters of situations related to the problem. Such representations are not equivalent to the parameters of the problem itself, but are equivalent to it in the sense of establishing the same relationships that are identified between the parameters of the metaphor and the actual situation. In this sense, “isomorphism” is understood here as a metaphorical preservation of the relationships that take place in the actual problem situation.

When constructing effective metaphors, it is not enough to simply include in the story one participant for each actual problem and one line of events for each actual event related to the problem. The relationship and flow of the current situation must be included in the story so that the client accepts it as a meaningful representation of his problem. Such a requirement means: what is significant for a metaphor is an isomorphic representation of the relationships and processes found in the problem. If the isomorphism condition is satisfied, then any context is suitable for composing a metaphor. When choosing characters for a metaphor, it doesn't matter who they are. The key to this is how they interact.

Until now, the only way to complete the basic metaphor has been to ask about solving the problem. By observing your client, you intuitively know what changes would be beneficial for him and can determine which outcome should be chosen. However, in many cases the client determines the resolution themselves. Clients usually know what changes they would like to make. Where they most often find themselves confused is in building a bridge between their present, unsatisfactory and repetitive situation, on the one hand, and the desired situation, on the other hand. Therefore, a metaphor, as its two main components, has a desired outcome and a strategy that would make it possible to bridge the gap between the problem and the desired outcome.

In order to lead the client from his constantly recurring problem situation to the desired outcome, some kind of experimental behavioral bridge must be built between one and the other. It is usually not enough to simply jump from the “problem” to the “new behavior,” since this is what the client has been trying to do without success. This bridge between problem and outcome is called a bridging strategy.

To understand what a “bridging strategy” is, we can use the concept of recalibration. Typically, all problems are recursive in nature, that is, the same or similar configurations of events are repeated again and again, ultimately producing the same set of unpleasant or undesirable experiences. Therefore, to facilitate problem solving, it must be subject to recalibration, which is a function of the bridging strategy and ultimately allows the individual to emerge from repeated situations with freedom of choice.

Recalibration of a recurring situation includes:

1. Providing the client with the ability to recognize in which cases events form such a proportion that they become problematic.

2. Providing the client with the means by which he can reproportion these events.

Then, returning to questions of the formulation of metaphors, the first step in implementing recalibration will be to introduce a character (equivalent to the client) who in some way violates the old pattern of behavior, as a result of which he is ultimately capable of effectively changing the situation. This "in some way" is a way that you will apply the metaphor and will depend on your experience and intuition as a helper to people and as an ordinary human being.

The second step would be to introduce in descriptive form a character who has an understanding of the calibration becoming a problem and the way in which that problem could be recalibrated.

As discussed, the desired outcome often involves a bridging strategy. But the most appropriate strategy that could lead to this outcome is the strategy that the client directly or indirectly induces himself. An excellent way to obtain this information is to ask them to describe how the client tried to solve this problem before coming to the psychologist. By describing in detail his mistakes in solving a problem, the client will indirectly describe what needs to be done in order for the goal to be achieved, that is, he will describe at what points he becomes confused and, thus, in what directions his model is limited.

Another great way to get this information is to ask, “What is keeping you from..?” Therefore, the connecting strategy that the client induces for himself is that he takes too long to overcome or bypass his fear in order to do what he wants to do, and to understand that there is no need to put fear first place.

Another vital component in problem solving is reframing. To “reframe” means to take a previous painful or unwanted experience or behavior and recombine it so that it is valuable and potentially beneficial.

So, the whole process of formulating a basic metaphor looks like this:

Collection of information

1. Identification of significant persons involved in the problem:

a) identification of their interpersonal relationships.

2. Identification of events characteristic of the problem situation:

a) determining how the problem is developing (calibration).

3. Determining the changes that the client would like to make (outcome):

a) checking that they are accurately formulated.

4. Identifying what the client has done before to solve the problem or what is holding him back from making the desired changes (which can initiate a bridging strategy).

Creating a Metaphor

1. Context selection.

2. The choice of characters and the plan of the metaphor so that it is isomorphic to the identification of significant persons and events and the desired outcome.

3. Definition of permission, including:

a) recalibration strategy;

b) desired outcome;

c) reframing the immediate problem situation.

4. The message of the metaphor.

A broader definition of metaphor was given by Aristotle. He defined metaphor as the naming of a thing by a name that belongs to something else, in which the transfer is carried out either from genus to species, or from species to species, or on the basis of analogy.

In the literary encyclopedic dictionary, metaphor is defined as a figure of speech consisting in the use of words or expressions in a figurative sense based on some analogy, similarity, or comparison.

Metaphorical communication - an extensive section of psychology. There are many different speech patterns that contribute to an intense impact on the listener when telling him any metaphorical story.

Proverbs . Relatively brief, aphoristic stories of the didactic-allegorical genre, distinguished by their attraction to the deep wisdom of a religious or moralistic order.

The specificity of the poetics of parables is the lack of descriptiveness. The main characters, locked into the framework of certain combinations of mental traits, appear not as objects of artistic observation, but as subjects of ethical choice. Parables are a universal phenomenon of world folklore and literary creativity (Old Testament, Syrian “Teachings of Ahikar”).

Legends - oral stories based on a miracle, a fantastic image or performance, presented as reliable. Unlike legends, legends are always fantastic in content; they are distinguished from parables by the abundance of details. In modern everyday meaning, legends are often called, regardless of genre, works that are distinguished by poetry and “supernatural” fiction and at the same time claim to be authentic in the past.

Fairy tales They differ from other types of artistic epic in that they are initially perceived as fiction, a game of fantasy. However, under these colorful clothes there is always hidden a certain truth, the purpose of a fairy tale is to convey it to the consciousness of those who listen.

Poetry - poetic works, unlike prose, specially organized using rhyme and rhythm. They represent the quintessence of a certain facet of life experience in a metaphorical embodiment, thanks to which they can overcome both cultural, historical and temporal limitations. They fit almost flawlessly into any picture of the world.
The main situations in which the use of metaphors is appropriate include the following:

• 
  The need to remind the client about the resources available to him;
• 
  to find new resources;
• 
  proposing a solution to the problem;
• 
  structuring communication (establishing a hierarchy);
• 
  removing barriers to communication (resistance, fear);
• 
  breaking down limiting beliefs.

Topic 7. Features of psychodiagnostics in the counseling process.

Psychodiagnostics - in the narrow sense - measurement of individual psychological properties of a person based on special methods. The main diagnostic methods are testing and questioning, and their methodological implementation, respectively, is tests and questionnaires.

Tests - a standardized method for objectively measuring one or more aspects of a holistic personality through verbal or nonverbal responses.

Questionnaires - techniques, the material of which consists of questions that the client must answer, or statements with which the client must express his agreement or disagreement. There are open and closed questionnaires, questionnaires and personal ones. As part of psychological counseling, it is more advisable to use closed-type questionnaires.

Carrying out diagnostics during the counseling process is necessary:

1. To establish a more accurate diagnosis. For example, a high level of anxiety in individuals can manifest itself in the form of aggression and “withdrawal.”

2. To assess the client’s individual characteristics (character/temperament, way of reacting, dependence - dominance, rigidity - creativity).

3. When a new method is applied. In this case, counseling turns into a scientific and practical psychological experiment.

4. Testing itself has a psychotherapeutic value (establishing contact, relieving tension, feeling important).

5. Test data is useful for tracking the client's progress and evaluating results. As a rule, the need for this arises when the client himself is not able to adequately assess the positive changes that have occurred to him. As for the regularity of diagnostic tests, it is advisable to conduct them two to three times during the consultation process: at the beginning of the session, after its completion and, if necessary, during the control meeting.

Firstly, psychodiagnostic procedures should not be too cumbersome, labor-intensive and time-consuming.

We should not forget that the main substantive beginning in consulting work is the live conversation between the psychologist and the client: the latter’s story about his experiences, discussion of his problem situation, empathy and sympathy.

The listed elements of the consultative process are components of human communication, which can be interrupted, stopped, or begin to move “in a different direction” if the psychologist stops communicating and introduces diagnostic tools contrary to the logic of the unfolding conversation.

If during the consultation the task of a purely psychodiagnostic assessment of the client’s individual mental characteristics arises, it is advisable to set aside a separate day for a special psychodiagnostic examination.

As part of a psychological consultation, only lightweight and short-term “psychodiagnostic tests” can be organized, subordinated to the goals of the advisory process and organically included in the dynamics of communicative interactions between the psychologist and the client.

Secondly, if during a consultation a psychologist uses a diagnostic questionnaire, the latter can act as an auxiliary tool for “launching” the main process of the conversation.

In addition, using a diagnostic questionnaire as a “trigger” communicative tool, a psychologist, observing his client, will be able to obtain additional information about him: what test questions the teenager answers on the spot and without thinking, what questions cause him to think for a long time, seriously or whether he is not serious about meeting with a psychologist, whether he is ready for an open, confidential conversation or is completely closed to communication. The results of the psychologist’s observation in this case can be useful and informative for the further construction of the advisory process.

Third, A drawing-type diagnostic technique can be successfully applied if the client in consultation is a student who has poor speech skills and with whom it is difficult to count on full communication.

Similar techniques are often used in consultations if a psychologist is working with a primary school student. After the child completes the psychologist’s assignment, the entire communication process is then built around the drawing: the psychologist asks, the child explains his drawing. During such interaction, the psychologist has the opportunity to formulate some provocative, testing or stimulating questions.

And finally, fourthly, a projective diagnostic technique can be used in the counseling process if it is necessary to quickly identify, during the conversation, the underlying tendencies of the client’s personality that are unconscious to him.
Psychologist as a “diagnostic tool”.

The use of diagnostic tools in counseling concerns not only verbal and nonverbal (projective) techniques. It is also important to discuss the issue of the psychodiagnostic capabilities of the psychologist himself as a specialist and an understanding, feeling person.

Psychological consultation is essentially a process of interrelated and interdependent communicative actions between a psychologist and a client. The resulting resultant, which forms the substantive core of the conversation, is set by both the psychologist and the client.

The communicative structure of a counseling situation, like a tangled “tangle” of interactions between two participants, does not mechanically unwind into separate threads that are introduced either by the psychologist or the client. These may be mutual psychological defenses of both participants in the consultation, intersections of mutual projections, emotional reflections of internal states and “mirror” (reflexive) thoughts about reasoning.

A psychologist who is subjectively involved in a conversation situation is, in essence, the best “diagnostic tool”: he subtly feels what is happening, assesses the state of his client, and records the living dynamics of the conversation. The difficulty here lies in how a psychologist can take into account himself and his influence on the development of the situation, and also, if it is impossible to fully isolate his share of participation, how to psychologically competently assess the client, using himself as a “diagnostic tool”.

In order for the psychologist to have the opportunity to assess his own influence on the course of the consultation and thus act as a “psychodiagnostic tool” that adequately assesses the client’s condition and problem situation, he needs to analyze the consultative process from the detached position of an external observer, as if from the outside. How to do it?

Experienced consultants typically have the ability to simultaneously be present both within the conversational process and to take a position outside or above it. By joining the conversation and acting as a full participant in communication, the psychologist simultaneously corrects and evaluates the client, himself and the situation. This dual position helps the psychologist to trust his sensations, feelings and thoughts, maintain the necessary distance from the client and gain an adequate understanding of both his own participation and realistically evaluate and understand his client.

One of the effective ways to create conditions for a psychologist to master a detached position during a consultation is to keep a hidden tape recording of the conversation. In this case, after the end of the consultation, the psychologist will be able to listen to the recording of the conversation, identify constructive lines of conversation that he did not notice during the live conversation, and notice his mistakes where, as it seemed to him, he acted correctly.

Even if the consultation in question was a one-time meeting with a client, the psychologist, having studied the tape recording, gets the opportunity to correct his own style of conducting counseling, analyze his mistakes and the reasons that caused them, understand the specifics of his influence on the course of the conversation and the client’s behavior, and evaluate the effectiveness of the decisions made during the consultation and advice and recommendations offered to the client. Such work with tape recording is useful for the professional skills of a psychologist. An accurate understanding of yourself, your style and your participation in the consultation process will necessarily manifest itself in increasing the effectiveness of the subsequent consultation.

If, after the initial meeting, a series of consultations with this client or clients are planned, when listening to the tape recording, the psychologist makes a more reliable diagnosis of the client, himself and his interactions with him. Such diagnostics contributes to the development of effective and realistic advice and recommendations for the client.

If, for certain reasons, the psychologist does not use a tape recorder during the consultation, it is advisable that he keep short notes during the conversation or immediately after its end, write down for himself from memory the main substantive points of the conversation, the features of the client’s problem situation and his behavior, and the means of influence used in the consultation. on the client, suggested tips and recommendations. Such a recording “from fresh memory” can be useful both for improving the professional level of the psychologist and gaining experience, and for assessing the client, himself and his interactions with him.
Topic 8. Psychodynamic model of psychological counseling.
As you know, the concept of the unconscious is the main point of Freud's theory. The concept of the unconscious allows us to describe the complexity and ambiguity of human life.

The main task psychoanalysis is the identification and study of the subconscious sphere that controls a person. A psychologist, working with a client from the perspective of psychodynamic theory, strives to ensure that the client becomes aware of his subconscious processes and learns to influence them. In this case, it is considered that the goal of interaction between the psychologist and the client has been achieved.

In this theory, it is believed that stable personality characteristics are usually formed very early. These children's stereotypes are then in different variants are reproduced in adult behavior. A person's life is determined by his past.

A psychologist working with a client identifies these stereotypes and establishes their connection with each other and with the person’s childhood experience. The client's thoughts and actions are then labeled in psychoanalytic terms, that is, interpreted.

3. Freud formulated a theory of personality development, highlighting and designating in it periods that implement various tasks of personality development and described developmental crises; the psychologist works with the content of these crises and helps the person achieve intentionality.

Recognition of emotional and behavioral stereotypes can be achieved through the study of personality defense mechanisms. Psychoanalytic consultation places awareness of the origins of the client's problems at the center. Insight as a moment of awareness is often enough to initiate personal change.

Personality conflicts 3. Freud described them in terms of the id, ego and superego. In modern modifications of the theory, the task of the psychologist is to find, with the help of the human ego, a certain consistent relationship between the id and the super-ego. It is the area of ​​the subconscious. The super-ego is what a person acquired in the process of socialization. I am the conductor between the Super-Ego and the It. A strong self, regulating the relationship between the id and the superego, is the most important condition for achieving intentionality.

Since the main task of the Self is to maintain a balance between external (social) forces acting on a person and internal (unconscious) forces, the psychologist constantly works with the self-defense mechanisms of the individual. In psychodynamic theories, it is believed that most defense mechanisms are used to suppress sexuality.

Let us dwell briefly on the characteristics of the basic protective mechanisms of the personality, the advantages and disadvantages of which in maintaining a balance between the Id and the Superego were analyzed by P. Leyster.

Important self-defense mechanisms are also fixation (delay on one side of development), regression (return to more early stage of development), transference (of unconscious experiences into the physical sphere, for example, into a headache), provocative behavior (behaving in such a way that the person is forced to reveal feelings that the provoker himself is incapable of, for example, expressing anger or love).

During the interview process, a psychologist working on the basis of psychodynamic theory uses the following: techniques:

1. Analysis of everyday symbols, for example, the client’s directed association to a given word.

2. “Freudian error” is the client’s mistakes, slips, and slips of the tongue, which tell the client’s subconscious feelings. Free association is the best way to understand the meaning of these errors.

3. Analysis of dreams through the flow of free associations regarding the content of the dream.

4. Analysis of resistance as a manifestation of a broader mechanism of repression.

Awareness of your feelings towards the client and the ability to deal with your feelings is an integral part of the work of a practical psychologist of any direction.

So, free association is the basis of all techniques used psychologists using psychodynamic theory.

Working in line with psychodynamic theories requires the psychologist to have intellectual discipline and mastery of techniques, which is achieved through long-term systematic training; the unsystematic use of psychoanalytic techniques and techniques for interpreting results gives rise to “wild” psychoanalysis, which does not bring relief to the client.
Topic 9. Cognitive-behavioral paradigm in psychological counseling.

Initial methodological position psychologists of this direction is to give the client control over his actions, to cause specific changes in his behavior.

Historically, this direction comes from the works of D. Watson and B. Skinner. This is a very optimistic direction based on the scientific pragmatism of its adherents. The psychologist, together with the client, tries to intervene in the client’s life conditions in order to change them. This is built on the following main components of behavioral psychology: 1) the relationship between the psychologist and the client: 2) defining the problem through the operationalization of behavior: 3) understanding the context of the problem through functional analysis; 4) establishing socially important goals for the client.

1. The behavioral psychologist shares his plans with the client, hoping for the client’s activity in interacting with himself.

2. The behavioral psychologist is based on clear and precise data about the behavior and actions of clients. Analysis presupposes the psychologist's clear knowledge of what the client is doing and how he behaves.

The goal of operationalizing behavior is to translate vague words into objective, observable actions. A behavioral psychologist asks himself and decides the question: “Can I see, feel, touch the concepts that my client uses?”

3. Functional analysis involves the study of events preceding an act, the act itself and its consequences, that is, the result. This way, cause-and-effect relationships are clarified in the sequence of events that determine the client’s external behavior.

4. Establishing socially important goals for the client necessarily involves the participation of the client. The psychologist selects and develops with the client the achievement of goals for him, suggesting a specific plan of action for the future.

Behavioral analysis is an emphasis on specific human actions and behaviors. A behavioral psychologist emphasizes a person's actions rather than the person's thoughts about actions.

Having accurately identified the problem, the psychologist is ready to offer the client answers to solutions.

Technicians.

A behavioral psychologist uses many techniques, the most popular of which is perseverance training . Assertiveness training allows most clients to overcome helplessness and inadequacy, which are the most common types of problems encountered by clients.

When training perseverance during an interview, in addition to open and closed questions, the psychologist uses role-playing games, during which the psychologist, using directives, asks directed interviews.

Questions, role-playing games and listing alternatives for making a decision are the arsenal of a behavioral psychologist. promoting change in client behavior.

Among the procedures for changing behavior, the behavioral psychologist uses, in addition to perseverance training, relaxation training , targeted reduction of anxiety (phobia), based on teaching deep relaxation, building a hierarchy of fears and linking the object of anxiety with the hierarchy of fears against the background of relaxation exercises.

Behavior modeling and rewards for desired behavior are also behaviorist methods of teaching clients new behavior.

Behavioral psychologists widely use diaries and other records of clients that they keep while working with a psychologist.

Behavioral counseling widely uses psychological strategies aimed at maintaining the client's desired behavior in everyday life; This relapse prevention strategies.

Relapses and breakdowns happen to most clients; the psychologist’s task is to build a program at the generalizing stage of the interview that would help cope with the relapse.

This strategy allows the client to control himself in difficult situations. Relapse prevention strategies fall into the following categories: anticipating difficult situations, regulating thoughts and feelings; identifying the necessary additional skills, building favorable sequences.

Research shows the effectiveness of relapse prevention programs. The main points of the relapse prevention program are as follows:

1. Choosing appropriate behavior. Describing it in detail, the client deciding how often he will still need this behavior and how he will understand that a breakdown has occurred.

2. Relapse prevention strategy: the behavioral strategy is that the client records the relapse that has occurred and describes what it is. Then analyzes what the difference is between teaching difficult behavior and using it in difficult situations. Then it is analyzed which of the people known to the client can help him adhere to the desired behavior. Then high-risk situations, people, events, places that provoke a breakdown are discussed.

3. The rational thinking strategy provides an analysis of the client's emotional response to a temporary breakdown or relapse, as well as an analysis of what will help him think more effectively in difficult situations or after a breakdown.

4. Practice aimed at supporting the developed skills is discussed with the client. The question of what additional skills he needs to stay within the framework of the developed behavior is discussed.

5. With the strategy of determining the desired conclusions, the psychologist and the client condemn the future benefits of his new behavior, ways of rewarding himself for the action performed.

6. The strategy for predicting the consequences of the first relapse is aimed at describing in detail the first relapse - people, places, time, possible emotional state.

Relapse prevention techniques are important not only for behavioral psychology. The problem of relapse exists in the work of psychologists of all directions; its solution by behavioral psychologists deserves the enormous attention of all practical psychologists.

MODERN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

Course work
on the topic: “Analysis of various areas of using metaphor in the practice of psychological counseling”

completed by: fifth year student
Faculty of Psychology
*********

scientific consultant:
Korneev A.S.

Moscow, 2007

Introduction 3
1. The concept of “metaphor” in modern practical psychology 5
2. Types and general structure of working with metaphor in psychology
counseling 13
3. Psychotherapeutic directions for using metaphor in
counseling 18
Conclusion 41
Literature 42

Introduction

The history of the development of ideas about metaphorical knowledge of reality goes back thousands of years. Even the priests of ancient civilizations used various metaphors as an element of their pagan cults. Currently, metaphor is widely used in many scientific fields. However, the most significant impact of this application is felt in the process of working with a client in psychological practice. The metaphor allows us to consider much more broadly the psychological, social, spiritual context in which problems and difficulties arise for a person, which force him to seek professional help from a psychologist. This feature predetermines the social significance of our research.
In psychology and psychotherapy, metaphor is an inseparable element of the advisory, therapeutic process of the therapist’s work with the client. Starting from S. Freud, M. Erikson, F. Perls, K.G. Jung and ending with modern researchers of this problem in various areas of practical psychology, the use of metaphor as a technique for working with people has been a constant attribute of individual and group work with people. However, despite the fact that the technique of using therapeutic stories is far from new, no scientific study of this problem has yet been carried out. In addition, there are so many views on the use of metaphor in counseling that analysis and study of them turns out to be simply necessary in the context of scientific substantiation of the use of this technique in practice. These aspects constitute the scientific significance of our work.
The study of various forms and models of using metaphor in the advisory and therapeutic process can help practicing psychologists and psychotherapists more effectively use this technology of working with clients. This explains the practical orientation of this work.
In this regard, the purpose of our research is to study and analyze various areas of the use of metaphor in the practice of psychological counseling.
The object of the study is metaphor as an element of working with a client in the process of consulting work.
The subject of the study is various directions of using metaphors in the practice of psychological counseling.
Tasks:
1. Conduct a comprehensive analysis of the literature on the problem.
2. Define and carry out a scientific interpretation of the basic concepts of the study.
3. Consider and analyze various areas of use of metaphor in the process of a psychotherapist working with a client.

1. The concept of “metaphor” in modern practical psychology

Therapy using metaphors is not currently a scientifically based concept, but is developing as a system of empirical techniques used in various psychotherapeutic approaches. Psychotherapists who argue for the implicit use of metaphors in psychotherapy, such as Gordon, author of Therapeutic Metaphors: Helping Others Using the Mirror, note that throughout cultural history, metaphors have been used as devices to develop and communicate ideas. Shamans, ancient philosophers, preachers - all of them, in a similar manner, intuitively recognized and used the power of metaphor......

Conclusion

The theoretical work we carried out to study various areas of using metaphor in the practice of psychological counseling allowed us to highlight a number of significant conclusions:
Metaphor is a method of communication in which certain things are expressed through terms belonging to another realm of things, which together shed new light on the nature of what was previously described. The effective use of metaphor in psychological counseling should be based on a purposeful and conscious impact on certain personal patterns of the client.
An analysis of various directions in the use of metaphor in psychological counseling can be considered as an evolution of views on the process of a therapist working with a client. If at the beginning the metaphor was considered, first of all, as the context of a certain theoretical concept (in the classical psychoanalysis of S. Freud or the analytical psychology of C. G. Jung), then later, the metaphor becomes one of the techniques used when working with a client in the counseling process. This can be seen especially clearly when considering the theory of Ericksonian hypnosis, Gestalt therapy, as well as NLP and art therapy. The very meaning of using metaphor in counseling is expanding, new forms are emerging (visual, bodily metaphor). Finally, recently another type of work with clients has appeared - fairy tale therapy. This direction, at its core, completely contains and is based on the use of a fairy tale as a metaphorical image with which the consultant and client work.
The versatility of using metaphor in the practice of psychological counseling expands the boundaries of methods and techniques used in working with adults and children.

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